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LIPPINCOT 
,FARM MANUAL, 





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Book . L rK_Z i__ 
GopyrightN?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



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in 2011 with funding from 
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" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE 
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



COMMON DISEASES OF 
FARM ANIMALS 

By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M. 

PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY; AND CHIEF VETERINARIAN, 
PURDUE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 



LIPPINCOTT'S 
FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. 



PRODUCTIVE 
SWINE HUSBANDRY 

(2nd Edition) 
By G. E. day, B.S.A. 

Ontario Agricultural College 

$1.50 net 

PRODUCTIVE 
POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

(2nd Edition) 
By II. R. LEWIS, B.S. 

Rutgers College, N. J. 

$2.00 net 



PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE HUSBANDRY 

By C. W. gay, D V M., B.S.A. 

University of Pennsylvania 

$1.50 net 



PRODUCTIVE 
ORCHARDING 

By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

Professor of Pomology 
Massachusetts Agricultural College 

$1.50 net 

PRODUCTIVE 
FEEDING OF FARM 
ANLMALS 

By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D. 

Professor of Animal Nutrition, 
University of California 

$1.50 net 

COMMON DISEASES 
OF FARAi ANIMALS 
By R. a. CRAIG, D.V.M. 

Purdue University 

$1.50 net 

PRODUCTIVE 
SHEEP HUSBANDRY 
By W. C. COFFEY, M.S. 

University of Illinois 

In Preparation 



LippiNCOTT's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 



COMMON DISEASES OF 
FARM ANIMALS 



V, 

BY 



R; A. CRAIG, D.V.M. 



PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY; AND CHIEF VETERINARIAN, 
PURDUE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 



123 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 



" If vain our toil, 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT, I9IS 
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Electrotyped a7id Printed by 
J. B. LippincoU Company, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



EP 20 1915 

ICI.A410616 

7vo I ' 



PREFACE 

In preparing the material for this book, the author has 
endeavored to arrange and discuss the subject matter in a 
way to be of the greatest service and help to the agricultural 
student and stockman, and place at their disposal a text and 
reference book. 

The general discussions at the beginning of the different 
sections and chapters, and the discussions of the different dis- 
eases are naturally brief. An effort has been made to con- 
veniently arrange the topics for both practical and class-room 
work. The chapters have been grouped under the necessary 
heads, with review questions at the end of each chapter, and 
the book divided into seven parts. 

The chapters on diseases of the locomotory organs, the teeth, 
surgical diseases and castration, although not commonly dis- 
cussed in books of this class, the writer believes will be of value 
for reference and instructional work. 

When used as a text-book, it will be well for the instructor 
to supplement the text with class-room discussions. 

The writer has given special emphasis to the cause and pre- 
vention of disease, and not so much to the medicinal treatment. 
Stockmen are not expected to practise the medicinal treatment, 
but rather the preventive treatment of disease. For this reason 
it is not deemed advisable to give a large number of formulas for 
the preparation of medicinal mixtures to be used for the treat- 
ment of disease, but such treatment is suggested in the most 
necessary cases. 

E. A. Ckaig. 
Purdue Univeesitt, LaFayette, Ind. 
August, 1915. 



*'-pr'" 



CONTENTS 



PART I.— INTRODUCTORY. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. General Discussion of Disease 3 

II. Diagnosis and Symptoms of Disease 8 

III. Treatment 16 

PART II.— NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES. 

IV. Diseases of the Digestive System 25 

V. Diseases of the Liver 55 

VI. Diseases of the Urinary Organs 58 

VII. Diseases of the Generative Organs 65 

VIII. Diseases of the Respiratory Apparatus 91 

IX. Diseases of the Circulatory Organs 104 

X. Diseases of the Nervous System 109 

XI. Diseases of the Skin 119 

XII. Diseases of the Eye 125 

XIII. General Diseases of the Locomotory Apparatus 131 

XIV. Structure of the Limbs of the Horse 138 

XV. Unsoundnesses and Blemishes 143 

XVI. Diseases of the Fore-Limb 147 

XVII. Diseases of the Foot 160 

XVIII. Diseases of the Hind I>imb 174 

PART III.— THE TEETH. 

XIX. Determining the Age of Animals 187 

XX. Irregularities of the Teeth , 196 

PART IV.— SURGICAL DISEASES. 

XXI. Inflammation and Wounds 203 

XXII. Fractures and Harness Injuries. 214 

XXIII. Common Surgical Operations 219 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

PART v.— PARASITIC DISEASES. 

X XIV. Parasitic Insects and Mites 233 

XXV. Animal Parasites 248 

PART VI.— INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

XXVI. Hog-Cholera 269 

XXVII. Tuberculosis 283 

XXVIII. Infectious Diseases Common to the Different Species of 

Domestic Animals 293 

XXIX. Infectious Diseases op the Horse 309 

XXX. Infectious Diseases of Cattle 316 

XXXI. Infectious Diseases of Poultry 323 

Reference Books 328 

Index 329 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fla. PAGE 

Insanitary dairy stable and yards Frontispiece 

1. Side and posterior view of bull showing conformation favorable 

to the development of disease 5 

2. Insanitary yards 6 

3. Showing where pulse of horse is taken 10 

4. Auscultation of the lungs 12 

5. Fever thermometer 13 

6. Dose syringe 18 

7. Hypodermic syringes 20 

8. Photograph of model of horse's stomach 28 

9. Photograph of model of stomach of ruminant 28 

10. (Esophageal groove 29 

11. Dilated stomach of horse 31 

12. Rupture of stomach of horse 32 

13. Showing the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured 

with trocar and cannula in " bloat " 35 

14. Photograph of model of digestive tract of horse 39 

15. Photograph of model of digestive tract of ruminant 41 

16. A yearling colt .that died of aneurism colic 42 

17. Photograph of model of udder of cow 67 

18. Photograph of model of uterus of cow containing foetus 79 

19. Placenta of cow 83 

20. A case of milk-fever 88 

21. Milk-fever apparatus 89 

22. A case of catarrhal cold 94 

23. Photograph of model of horse's heart 104 

24. Elephantiasis in horse 107 

25. Photograph of model of horse's brain 110 

26. Unilateral facial paralysis 112 

27. Bilateral facial paralysis 112 

28. Skeleton of horse 131 

29. Photograph of model of stifle joint 132 

30. Atrophy of the muscles of the thigh 135 

31. Shoulder lameness 147 

32. Shoe-boil 149 

33. Sprung knees 152 

34. Splints 152 

ix 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

yo. BonnH of digit 158 

:i(}. PJjotograpL of a model of the foot 100 

37. Foot showiug neglect in trimming wall 161 

38. A very large side bone 162 

39. A case of navictilar disease 164 

40. An injproperly sLod foot 165 

41. Toe-cracks 168 

42. Quarter-crack caused by bar}>-wjre cut 168 

4.3. Cbanges occurring in chronic lamjnitis 172 

44. Atropljy of the muscles of the quarter 175 

45. String-halt 177 

46. A large bone sjjavin 178 

47. KormaJ cannon hone and cannon bone sljowjng bony enlargement. . 179 

48. Bog spavins 180 

49. 'J'horough pin 181 

50. Curbs 18.3 

51. Head of young iiorse showing position and size of tef:;th 187 

52. Longitudinal section of incisor tooth 189 

53. Cross-section of head of young horse, showing replacement of molar 

tooth 190 

54. 'J'ransverse swtion of incisor t<Jot)j 191 

55. Transverse sections of incisor toot)) sljowing dianges at different 

ages 192 

56. 'J'wth showing uneven vv<,-ar occurring in ohj horses 198 

57. Fistula of jaw 199 

58. A large ))ock caused by a punctured wound of the joint 207 

59. A large inJlanjniatory growDi following injury 208 

60. Fistula of tlie withers 212 

6J. KhouhJer al^sccss cuuscij by h>osc-htting jjarness 216 

62. A piece of the wall of the liorsc's stomach showing hot-fly Jarva^ 

attaclx'd 234 

63. JJiting louse 237 

64. Hucking louse 238 

65. Nits attached to hair 238 

66. iSheep-tick 241 

67. HlK'ep scab mite 242 

68. Slx'cp scab 243 

69. A severe case of rnang<j 245 

70. Liver flukes 248 

7 1 . Tapeworms 250 

72. 'iaj^eworni larv;i; in liver 250 

73. Tapew(jrn) larva; in tlie pcritf^xfum 251 

74. 'J'horn hcadi'd worms 253 



ILLUSTRATIONS xi 

75. Large round-worm in intestine of hog 254 

76. Lamb aifected with stomach worm disease 258 

77. Whip-worms attached to wall of intestine 260 

78. Pin-worms in intestine 260 

79. A hog yard where disease-producing germs may be carried over 

from year to year 270 

80. Carcass of a cholera hog 274 

81. Kidneys from hog that died of acute hog-cholera 275 

82. Lungs from hog that died of acute hog-cholera 275 

83. A piece of intestine showing intestinal ulcers 276 

84. Cleaning up a hog lot 278 

85. Hyperimmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera 

serum 280 

86. Preparing the hog for vaccination 281 

87. Vaccinating a hog 281 

88. Koch's BaciUas tuberculo^ 283 

89. A tubercular cow 286 

90. Tubercular spleens 287 

91. The carcass of a tubercular cow 288 

92. A section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow. 289 

93. A very large tubercular gland 290 

94. A tubercular gland that is split open 291 

95. Caul showing tuberculosis 291 

96. Foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint 291 

97. Staphylococcus pi/ogcncs 293 

98. Streptococcits pyogenes 293 

99. Bacillus of malignant oedema, showing spores 294 

100. Bacillus of malignant oedema 294 

101. Bacillus bovHsepticus 295 

102. A yearling steer affected with septicaemia hsemorrhagica 296 

103. Bacillit^ anthi-acis 297 

104. Bacilhis necrophorii^ 299 

105. Negi'i bodies in nerve-tissue 300 

106. A cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease 303 

107. Slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease. 304 

108. Disinfecting boots and coats before leaving a farm where cattle 

have been inspected for foot-and-mouth disease 305 

109. Cleaning up and disinfecting premises 305 

110. Bacillus tetani 306 

111. Head of horse affected with tetanus 307 

112. A subacute case of tetanus 308 

113. Streptococcus of strangles in pus 309 

114. Badllxis mallei 312 



Xii ILLUSTEATIONS 

115. Nasal septum sho^ng nodules and ulcers 313 

116. Streptococcus pyogenes equi 314 

117. A case of " lumpy jaw '" 31G 

118. Tlie ray fungus 317 

119. Bacillus of emphysematous anthrax 319 

120. Cattle tick (male) 320 

121. Cattle tick (female) 320 

122. Blood-cells with Pi/roplasma higeminum in them 321 

123. BoGillv^ avisepticy^ 323 



PART I 

INTRODUCTORY 



COMMON DISEASES OF 
FARM ANIMALS 



CHAPTER I 
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DISEASE 

Disease is the general term for any deviation from the 
normal or healthy condition of the body. The morbid j)i'ocesse3 
that result in either slight or marked modifications of the normal 
condition are recognized by the injurious changes in the struct- 
ure or function of the organ, or group of body organs involved. 
The increase in the secretion of urine noticeable in horses in the 
late fall and winter is caused by the cool weather and the decrease 
in the perspiration. If, however, the increase in the quantity 
of urine secreted occurs independently of any normal cause and 
is accompanied by an unthrifty and weakened condition of the 
animal, it would then characterize disease. Tissues may undergo 
changes in order to adapt themselves to different environments, 
or as a means of protecting themselves against injuries. The 
coat of a horse becomes heavy and appears rough if the animal 
is exposed to severe cold. A rough, staring coat is very common 
in horses affected by disease. The outer layer of the skin be- 
comes thickened when subject to pressure or friction from the 
harness. This change in structure is purely protective and 
normal. In disease the deviation from normal must be more 
permanent in character than it is in the examples mentioned 
above, and in some way prove injurious to the body functions. 

Classification. — We may divide diseases into three classes : 
non-specific, specific and parasitic. 

N on-specific diseases have no constant cause. A variety of 

3 



4 INTRODUCTORY 

causes may produce the same disease. For example, acute indi- 
gestion may be caused by a change of diet, watering the animal 
after feeding grain, by exhaustion and intestinal worms. 
Usually, but one of the animals in the stable or herd is affected. 
If several are affected, it is because all have been subject to 
the same condition, and not because the disease has spread from 
one animal to another. 

Specific Diseases. — The terms infectious and contagious are 
used in speaking of specific diseases. Much confusion exists in 
the popular use of these terms. A contagious disease is one that 
may be transmitted by personal contact, as, for example, in- 
fluenza, glanders and hog-cholera. As these diseases may be 
produced by indirect contact with the diseased animal as well as 
by direct, they are also infectious. There are a few germ dis- 
eases that are not spread by the healthy animals coming in direct 
contact with the diseased animal, as, for example, black leg 
and southern cattle fever. These are purely infectious diseases. 
Infection is a more comprehensive term than contagion, as it 
may be used in alluding to all germ diseases, while the use of 
the term contagion is rightly limited to such diseases as are 
produced principally through individual contact. 

Parasitic diseases are very common among domestic animals. 
This class of disease is caused by insects and worms, as for ex- 
ample, lice, mites, ticks, flies, and round and flat worms that 
live at the expense of their hosts. They may invade any of 
the organs of the body, but most commonly inhabit the digestive 
tract and skin. Some of the parasitic insects, mosquitoes, flies 
and ticks, act as secondary hosts for certain animal micro- 
organisms that they transmit to healthy individuals through the 
punctures or the bites that they are capable of producing in the 
skin. 

Causes. — For convenience we may divide the causes of 
disease .into the predisposing or indirect, and the exciting or 
direct. 



GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DISEASE 5 

The predisposing causes are such factors as tend to render 
the body more susceptible to disease or favor the presence of the 
exciting cause. For example, an animal that is narrow chested 
and lacking in the development of the vital organs lodged in 
the thoracic cavity, when exposed to the same condition as the 
other members of the herd, may contract disease while the 
animals having better conformation do not (Fig. 1). Hogs 
confined in well-drained yards and pastures that are free from 
filth, and fed in pens and on feeding floors that are clean, do 




Fig. 1. — (A) side and (B) posterior view of bull ^howinsj 
development of disease. 



conformation favorable to the 



not become hosts for large numbers of parasites. Hogs confined 
in filthy pens are frequently so badly infested with lice and intes- 
tinal woi'ms that their health and thriftiness are seriously inter- 
fered with. In the first case mentioned the predisposition to 
disease is in the individual, and in the second case it is in the 
surroundings (Fig. 2). 

The exciting causes are the immediate causes of the par- 
ticular disease. Exciting causes usually operate through the 
environment. With the exception of the special disease-produc- 
ing germs, the most common exciting causes are faulty food and 



6 INTRODUCTORY 

faulty methods of feeding. The following predisposing causes 
of disease may be mentioned : 

Age is an important factor in the production of disease. 
Young and immature animals are more prone to attacks of infec- 
tious diseases than are old and mature animals. Hog-cholera 
usually affects the young hogs in the herd first, while scours, 
suppurative joint disease and infectious sore mouth are dis- 
eases that occur during the first few days or few weeks of the 




FlQ. 2. — Insanitary yards. 

animal's life. Lung and intestinal parasites are more commonly 
found in the young, growing animals. Old animals are prone to 
fractures of bones and degenerative changes of the body tissues. 
As a general rule, the young are more subject to acute diseases 
and the old to chronic diseases. 

The surroundings or environments are important predis- 
posing factors. A dark, crowded, poorly ventilated stable lowers 
the animal's vitality, and renders it more susceptible to the 
disease. A few rods difference in the location of stables and 



GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DISEASE 7 

yards may make a m.arked difference in the health of the herd. 
A dry, protected site is always preferable to one in the open 
or on low, poorly drained soil. The majority of domestic animals 
need but little shelter, but they do need dry, comfortable quarters 
during wet, cold weather. 

Faulty feed afid faulty rnethods of feeding are very common 
causes of diseases of the digestive tract and the nervous system. 
A change from dry feed to a green, succulent ration is a common 
cause of acute indigestion in both horses and cattle. The feeding 
of a heavy ration of grain to horses that are accustomed to exer- 
cise, during enforced rest may cause liver and kidney disorders. 
The feeding of spoiled, decomposed feeds may cause serious 
nervous and intestinal disorders. 

One attack of a certain disease may influence the develop- 
ment of subsequent attacks of the same, or a different disease. 
An individual may suffer from an attack of pneumonia that so 
weakens the disease-resisting powers of the lungs as to result in 
a tubercular infection of these organs. In the horse, one attack 
of azoturia predisposes it to a second attack. One attack of 
an infectious disease usually confers immunity against that 
particular disease. 

Heredity does not play as important a part in the develop- 
ment of diseases in domestic animals as in the human race. A 
certain family may inherit a predisposition to disease through 
the faulty or insufficient development of an organ or group of 
organs. The different species of animals are affected by dis- 
eases peculiar to that particular species. The horse is the only 
species that is affected with azoturia. Glanders affects solipeds, 
while black leg is a disease peculiar to cattle. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is disease? 

2. How are diseases classified? Give an example of the different classes. 

3. What is a predisposing cause? Exciting cause? 

4. Name the different predisposing and exciting causes of disease. 



CHAPTER II 
DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 

The importance of recognizing or diagnosing the seat and 
nature of the morbid change occurring in an organ or group of 
organs cannot be overestimated. Laymen do not comprehend 
the difficulty or importance of correctly grouping the signs or 
symptoms of disease in such a way as to enable them to recognize 
the nature of the disease. In order to be able to understand the 
meaning of the many symptoms or signs of disease, we must j3os- 
sess knowledge of the structural and physiological functions of the 
different organs of the body. We must be familiar with the 
animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize 
any deviation from the normal due to disease, and we must learn 
from personal observation the different symptoms that charac- 
terize the different diseases. Stockmen should be able to tell 
when any of the animals in their care are sick as soon as the 
first symptom of disease manifests itself, by changes in the 
general appearance and behavior. But in order to ascertain 
the exact condition a general and systematic examination is 
necessary. The examiner, whether he be a layman or a veteri- 
narian, must observe the animal carefully, noting the behavior, 
appearance, surroundings, and general and local symptoms. 

Before making a general examinatio7i of the animal it is well, 
if the examiner is not already acquainted with the history of the 
case (care, feed and surroundings), to learn as much about this 
from the attendant as is possible. Inquiry should be made as 
to the feeding, the conditions under which the animal has been 
kept, the length of time it has been sick, its actions, or any other 
information that may be of assistance in forming the diagnosis 
and outlining the treatment. 

The general symptoms inform us regarding the condition of 
8 



DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 9 

the different groups of body organs. A careful study of this 
group of symptoms enables us correctly to diagnose disease and 
inform ourselves as to the progress of long, severe affections. 
These symptoms occur in connection with the pulse, respirations, 
body temperature, skin and coat, visible mucous membranes, 
secretions and excretions, and behavior of the animal. 

The local symptoms are confined to a definite part or organ. 
Swelling, pain, tenderness and loss of function are common local 
symptoms. A direct symptom may also be considered under this 
head because of its direct relation to the seat of disease. It aids 
greatly in forming the diagnosis. 

Other terms used in describing symptoms of disease are 
objective^ which includes all that can be recognized by the person 
making the examination ; indirect, which are observed at a dis- 
tance from the seat of the disease ; and premonitory , which 
precede the direct, or characteristic symptoms. The subjective 
symptoms include such as are felt and described by the patient. 
These symptoms are available from the human patient only. 

Pulse. — The character of the intermittent expansion of the 
arteries, called the pulse, informs us as to the condition of the 
heart and blood-vessels. The frequency of the pulse beat varies 
in the different species of animals. The smaller the animal the 
more frequent the pulse. In young animals the number of beats 
per minute is greater than in adults. Excitement or fear, espe- 
cially if the animal possesses a nervous temperament, increases 
the frequency of the pulse. During, and for a short time after, 
feeding and exercise, the pulse rate is higher than when the 
animal is standing at rest. 

The following table gives the normal rate of the pulse beats 
per minute : 

Horse 36 to 40 per minute 

Ox 45 to 50 per minute 

Sheep 70 to 80 per minute 

Pig 70 to 80 per minute 

Dog 90 to 100 per minute 



10 



INTRODUCTORY 



In sickness the pulse is instantly responsive. It is of the 
greatest aid in diagnosing and in noting the progress of the 
disease. The following varieties of pulse mav be mentioned: 
frequent, infrequent, quid;, slow, large, small, hard, soft and 
intermittent. The terms frequent and infrequent refer to the 
number of pulse beats in a given time; quick and slow to the 
length of time required for the pulse wave to pass beneath the 
finger; large and small to the volume of the wave; hard and 
soft to its compressibility; and intermittent to the occasional 

missing of a beat. A pulse 
beat that is small and quick, 
or large and soft, is fre- 
quently met with in dis- 
eases of a serious character. 
The horse's pulse is taken 
from the submaxillary ar- 
tery at a point anterior to 
or below the angle of the jaw 
and along its inferior border 
(Fig, 3). It is here that 
the artery winds around the 
inferior border of the jaw in 
an upward direction, and, be- 
cause of its location innnediately beneath the skin, it can be read- 
ily located by pressing lightly over the region with the fingers. 
Cattle's pulse is taken from the same artery as in the horse. 
The artery is most superficial a little above the border of the jaw. 
It is more difiicult to find the pulse wave in cattle than it is in 
horses, because of the larger amount of connective tissue just 
beneath the skin and the heavier muscles of the jaw. A very 
satisfactory pulse may be found in the small arteries located 
along the inferior part of the lateral region of the tail and near 
its base. 

The sheep's pulse may be taken directly from the femoral 




Fig. 3. — The X on the lower border of the 
jaw indicates the place where the pulse is taken. 



DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 11 

artery by placing the fingers over the inner region of the thigh. 
By pressing with the hand over the region of the heart we may 
determine its condition. 

The hog's pulse can easily be taken from the femoral artery 
on the internal region of the thigh. The artery crosses this 
region obliquely and is quite superficial toward its anterior and 
lower portion. 

The dog's pulse is usually taken from the brachial artery. 
The pulse wave can be readily felt by resting the fingers over 
the inner region of the arm and just above the elbow. The charac- 
ter of the heart beats in dogs may be determined by resting the 
hand on the chest wall. 

Respiration. — The frequency of the respirations varies with 
the species. The following table gives the frequency of the 
respirations in domestic animals: 

Horse 8 to 10 per minute 

Ox 12 to 15 per minute 

Sheep 12 to 20 per minute 

Dog 15 to 20 per minute 

Pig •. 10 to 15 per minute 

The ratio of the heart beats to the respirations is about 
1 : 4 or 1 : 5. This ratio is not constant in ruminants. Kumina- 
tion, muscular exertion and excitement increase the frequency 
and cause the respirations to become irregTilar. In disease the 
ratio between the heart beats and respirations is greatly dis- 
turbed, and the character of the respiratory sounds and move- 
ments may be greatly changed (Fig. 4). 

Severe exercise and diseased conditions of the lungs cause 
the animal to breathe rapidly and bring into use all of the respira- 
tory muscles. Such forced or labored breathing is a common 
symptom in serious lung diseases, " bloat " in cattle, or any con- 
dition that may cause dyspnoea. Horses affected with " heaves " 
show a double contraction of the muscles in the region of the 
flank during expiration. In spasm of the diaphragm or 



12 



INTRODUCTORY 



" thumps " the expiration appears to be a short, jerking move- 
ment of the flank. In the abdominal form of respiration the 
movements of the walls of the chest are limited. This occurs in 
pleurisy. In the thoracic form of respiration the abdominal 
wall is held rigid and the movement of the chest walls make up 
for the deficiency. This latter condition occurs in peritonitis. 




Fig. 4. — Auscultation of the lungs can be practised to an advantage over the outlined 
portion of the chest wall, only. 

A cough is caused by irritation of the membrane lining the 
air passages. The character of the cough may vary according to 
the nature of the disease. We may speak of a moist cough when 
the secretions in the air passages are more or less abundant. 
A dry cough occurs when the lining membrane of the air passages 
is dry and inflamed. This may occur in the early stage of the 



DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 13 

inflammation, or as a result of irritation from dust or irritating 
gases. Chronic cough occurs when the disease is of long dura- 
tion or chronic. In pleurisy the cough may be short and painful, 
and in broken wind, deep and suppressed. In parasitic diseases 
of the air passages and lungs, the paroxysm of coughing may be 
severe and " husky " in character. 

The odor of the expired air, the character of the discharge 
and the respiratory sounds found on making a careful examina- 
tion are important aids in arriving at a correct diagnosis, and 
in studying the progress of the disease. 

Body Temperature. — The body temperature of an animal is 
taken by inserting the fever thermometer into the rectum. In 
large animals a five-inch, and in small animals a four-inch 
fever thermometer is used. It should be inserted full length 



| iiii[ iii i[i iii |i ii i[ ii| i | ini [i i ii|[iii| ii ii | i i i i|u ii| i i' i[n i nii ii |M ii |ii ii | - '--^-'^^ ygt 
5^^^^^^^^^ ioo„.,-,i 4.. — — *- — fl 11,11 rnmi — lir-^'*^ 

Fig. 5. — Fever thermometer. 



and left in position from one and one-half to three minutes, 
depending on the rapidity with which it registers (Fig. 5). 
The average normal body temperatures of domestic animals 
are as follows : 

Horses 100.5° F. 

Cattle 101.4° F. 

Sheep 104.0° F. 

Swine 103.0° F. 

Dog 101.4° F. 

There is a wide variation in the body temperatures of domes- 
tic animals. This is especially true of cattle, sheep and hogs. 
In order to determine the normal temperature of an animal, it 
may be necessary to take two or more readings at different times, 
and compare them with the body temperatures of other animals 
in the herd that are known to be healthy. 

Exercise, feeding, rumination, excitement, warm, close 



14 INTRODUCTORY 

stables, exposure to cold and drinking ice cold water are common 
causes of variations in the body temperatures of domestic 
animals. 

Visible Mucous Membranes. — The visible mucous mem- 
branes, as they are tei-med, are the lining membranes of the eye- 
lids, nostrils and nasal cavities, and mouth. In health they are 
usually a pale red, excepting when the animal is exercised or 
excited, when they appear a brighter red and somewhat vascular. 
In disease the following changes in color and appearance may 
be noted: When inflamed, as in cold in the head, a deep red; 
in impoverished or bloodless conditions of the body and in 
internal hemorrhage, pale; in diseases of the liver, sometimes 
yellowish, or dark red; in diseases of the digestive tract (buccal 
mucous membrane), coated; if inflamed, dry at first, later ex- 
cessively moist ; and in certain germ diseases a mottled red, or 
showing nodules, ulcers and scars. 

Surface of the Body. — ^\Tien a horse is in a good condition 
and well cared for, the coat is short, fine, glossy and smooth and 
the skin pliable and elastic. Healthy cattle have a smooth, 
glossy coat and the skin feels mellow and elastic. The fleece 
of sheep should appear smooth and have plenty of yolk, the skin 
pliable and light pink in color. When the coat loses its lustre 
and gloss and the skin becomes hard, rigid, thickened and dirty, 
it indicates a lack of nutrition and an unliealthy condition of 
the body. In sheep, during sickness, the wool may become dry 
and brittle and the skin pale and rigid. AVhen affected with 
external parasites, the hair or wool becomes dirty and rough, 
a part of the skin may be denuded of hair, and it appears thick- 
ened, leathery and scabby, or shows pimples, vesicles and sores. 

During fever, the temperature of the surface of the body is 
very unequal. In serious diseases or diseases that are about to 
terminate fatally, the skin feels cold and the hair is wet with 
sweat. 

When animals are allowed to " rough it " durins;' the cold 



DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 15 

weather, the coat of hair becomes heavy and rough. This is a 
provision of nature and enables them, as long as the coat is dry, 
to withstand severe cold. 

Horses that are in a low physical condition, or when accus- 
tomed to hard work, if then kept in a stall for a few days without 
exercise, commonly show a filling of the cannon regions of the 
posterior extremities. This condition also commonly occurs in 
disease and in mares that have reached the latter period of 
pregnancy. Sheep that are unthrifty and in a poor physical con- 
dition, especially if this is due to internal parasites, frequently 
develop dropsical swellings in the region of the jaw, or neck. 

Body Excretions. — The character of the body excretions, 
fffices and urine may become greatly changed in certain diseases. 
It is important that the stockman or veterinarian observe these 
changes, and in certain diseases make an analysis of the urine. 
This may be necessary in order properly to diagnose the case. 

Behavior of the Animal. — When the body temperature is 
high, the animal may appear greatly depressed. If suffering 
severe pain, it may be restless. In diseases of the nervous sys- 
tem, the behavior of the animal may be greatly changed. 
Spasms, convulsions, general local paralysis, stupid condition and 
unconsciousness may occur as symptoms of this class of disease. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What information is necessary in order to be able to recognize or diag- 

nose disease? 

2. What are the general symptoms of disease ? 

3. What are the subjective symptoms of disease? 

4. Describe method of taking the pulse beat in the different animals and its 

character in health and disease. 

5. Give the ratio of the heart beats to the respirations in the different species 

of animals. 

6. What are the normal body temperatures in the different domestic animals? 

7. What are the visible mucous membranes ? 

8. Is the condition of the coat and skin any help in the recognition of 

disease ? 



CHAPTER III 

TREATMENT 

Preventive Treatment. — The subject of preventive medicine 
becomes more important as our knowledge of the cause of disease 
advances. A knowledge of feeds, methods of feeding, care, 
sanitation and the use of such biological products as bacterins, 
vaccines and protective serums is of the greatest importance 
to the farmer and veterinarian. We are begiimiug to realize that 
one of the most important secrets of profitable and successful 
stock raising is the prevention of disease; that the agricultural 
colleges are doing a great work in helping to teach farmers 
that there are right and wrong methods of feeding and caring 
for animals ; that the practice of sanitation in caring for animals 
is the cheapest method of treating disease ; and that it is advisable 
to practise radical methods of control, when necessary, in order 
to rid the herd of an infectious disease. 

The ration fed and the method of feeding are not only im- 
portant in considering the causes of diseases of the digestive 
tract, but diseases of other organs as well. The feeding of an 
excessive, or insufficient quantity of feed, or a ration that is too 
concentrated, bulky and innutritions, poor in quality, or .spoiled 
may produce disease. 

An impure water supply is a common cause of disease. A 
deep well that is closed in properly and does not permit of con- 
tamination from filth, does not insure a clean water supply if 
the trough or tank is not kept clean. 

Farm Buildings. — If stockmen would make a more careful 

study of the kind of farm buildings most suitable to their needs, 

the selection of the location, the proportions, the arrangement 

of the interior and the lighting and ventilation, there would be 

16 



TREATMENT 17 

a great saving in losses from disease, and the cost of building in 
many cases would be lessened. Your neighbor's building that 
you have taken for your model may not be suitable for your 
needs. It may be more expensive than your financial condition 
permits. It may be poorly lighted and ventilated and not suited 
to the site that you have selected. 

Biological Products. — There are a number of biological prod- 
ucts that may be used in the prevention and control of disease. 
Some of these products, such as tuberculin and malein, enable the 
owner to rid his herds of tubercular cows and glandered horses 
before these diseases have become far enough advanced to be 
recognized by the visible sjanptoms alone. Black leg, anthrax 
and hog-cholera vaccines are valuable agents in the control of 
disease. In the treatment of fistula and infectious abortion, 
bacterins may be used. There are many other germ diseases and 
infections for which vaccines and bacterins may be used. How- 
ever, we must not depend wholly on these agents in the control of 
disease. We must possess a knowledge of the manner in which 
the infection is spread, for without this knowledge we would be 
unable to prevent its dissemination over a wide area. 

Medicinal Treatment. — The average stockman or veteri- 
narian is more familiar with the treatment of disease with drugs 
than he is with the preventive measures just described. This 
statement does not imply that a knowledge of medicinal thera- 
peutics is not of the greatest importance in the treatment of 
disease. The ultimate object of all drugs is both to prevent and 
cure disease, but the injudicious use of a drug does neither. A 
discussion of this subject cannot be entered into here, and because 
of its largeness it is not advisable to discuss it further than a 
brief summary of the methods of administering drugs. 

Administration of Drugs. — Drugs may be administered by 
the following channels : by way of the mouth, in the feed or as a 
drench ; by injecting into the tissues beneath the skin or hypo- 
2 



18 



INTRODUCTORY 



dermically ; by rubbing into the skin ; by the air passages and the 
lungs ; and by injecting into the rectum. 

If the animal is not too sick to eat and the drug does not 
possess an unpleasant taste, it may be given with the feed. If 
soluble, it may be given with the drinking water, or in any case, 
it may be mixed with ground feed if this method is to be pre- 
ferred. In all cases the medicine must be well mixed with the 
feed. This is especially important if there are a number of 
animals to be treated, as there is more certainty of each animal 
getting the proper dose and the danger of overdosing is avoided. 
If the young animal is nursing the mother, we can take advantage 
of certain drugs being eliminated in the mother's milk and 
administer the druff to the mother. 







Fig. 6. — A good kind of a dose syringe. 

Drenches. — In the larger animals a bulky drench is some- 
times difficult to administer, and we should, in all cases, count 
on a portion being wasted. 

Horses are sometimes difficult to drench, and it may be 
advisable to confine the horse in some way. Small drenches can 
readily be given with a syringe (Fig. 6) or a small bottle. In 
giving bulky drenches it is most convenient to use a long-necked, 
heavy glass bottle. The horse should be backed into a narrow 
stall and the head elevated by placing a loop in the end of a small 
rope over the upper jaw, passing the rope back of the nose piece 
on the halter and throwing it over a beam, and raising the head 
until the mouth is slightly higher than the throat. If the horse 
refuses to swallow, a tablespoonful of clean water may be dropped 
into the nostril. This forces it to swallow. A drench should 



TREATMENT 19 

never be given through the nose, as it may pass into the air 
passages and cause a fatal inflammation of the lungs. 

Cattle can be easily drenched by taking hold of the nostrils 
with the fingers, or snapping a bull ring into the partition 
between the nostrils and elevating the head. 

Sheep may be drenched either in the standing position, or 
when thrown on the haunches and held between the knees. Care 
should be exercised in giving irritating drenches to sheep, espe- 
cially if the drench be bulky. 

A herd of hogs may be quickly and easily drenched if they 
are confined in a small pen, and the loop of a small rope placed 
around the snout, well back toward the corners of the mouth. A 
small metal dose syringe should be used. If the drench is bulky 
and the hog difficult to hold, it may be necessary to elevate the 
head and raise the forefeet from the ground. The drench 
should not be given until the hog is quiet and well under control, 
as there is some danger of the medicine passing into the air 
passages and doing harm. It may be necessary to mark the 
hogs that have been drenched with a daub of paint, or in some 
other manner in order to be able to distinguish them from the 
untreated animals. 

The administration of drugs enclosed in a gelatin capsule, or 
mixing them with syrup, honey or linseed oil, and rolling the 
mass into the form of a cylinder is commonly practised. The 
capsule or hall may then be shot into the pharynx with a balling 
gun. A ball may also be given to the larger animals by carrying 
it into the back part of the mouth with the hand, and placing it 
on the back part of the tongue. In the horse this method of 
administration requires some practice. The tongue must be 
pulled well forward, the head held up, and the tongue released 
as soon as the ball is placed on the tongTie, so that it may pass 
back into the pharynx. 

The administration of drugs by injecting beneath the skin 
(Fig. Y) is suitable when the drug is non-irritating and the 



20 



INTRODUCTORY 



dose is small. Drugs administered in this way act promptly and 
energetically. The alkaloid or active principle of the drug is 
commonly used. A fold of the skin is picked up with the fingers 
and the needle is quickly introduced, care being taken not to 
prick or scratch the muscular tissue, as this causes some pain and 
makes the animal restless. In order to avoid abscess formation 
at the point of injection, the skin should be cleansed with a disin- 
fectant and the syringe and needle sterilized before using. 

Drugs are not absorbed through the unbroken skin, but when 
applied with friction, or when the outer layer is removed by 




FiQ. 7. — Hypodermic syringes. 

blistering, absorption may take place. Liniments, blisters and 
poultices are the preparations used. 

Volatile drugs, such as chloroform and ether, are absorbed 
quickly by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs. This 
class of drugs is administered for the purpose of producing 
general anaesthesia. Ancesthetics are indispensable in many 
surgical operations. 

The administration of a drug in the form of medicated steam 
is quite useful in combating some respiratory diseases. In 
steaming large animals a pail about half full of boiling-hot water 
to which has been added about an ounce of coal-tar disinfectant, 



TREATMENT 21 

or whatever drug is required, is held within about one foot 
of the animal's nostrils. It is usually advisable to throw a light 
cover over the head and pail in order to direct the steam toward 
the nostrils. Dogs can be placed on a cane-seated chair and a 
pail or pan of boiling-hot water placed under it, and a sheet 
thrown over all. 

Drugs are administered by way of the rectum when the 
animal can not be drenched, or the drug can not be given in 
any other way and when a local action is desired. An enema 
or clyster is a fluid injection into the rectum and is employed 
for the following purposes : to accelerate the action of a purga- 
tive ; to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the intestines ; to 
kill intestinal parasites ; to reduce body temperature ; to adminis- 
ter medicine ; and to supply the animal with food. An enema 
may be administered by allowing water to gravitate into the rec- 
tum from a height of two or three feet or by using an injection 
pump. In the larger animals several feet of heavy walled rubber 
tubing carrying a straight nozzle at one end should be used. In 
administering an enema, the rectum should be emptied out with 
the hand and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward as 
possible. The operator should be careful not to irritate or tear 
the wall of the rectum. 

Size of the Dose. — The doses recommended in the treatment 
of the different diseases, unless otherwise stated, are for mature 
animals. The dose for a colt one year of age is about one-third 
the quantity given the adult, two years of age one-half, and three 
years of age two-thirds. In well-matured colts a larger dose may 
be ffiven. In cattle, the doses recommended are about the same. 
In the smaller animals the size of the dose may be based on the 
development and age of the animal. AATien the drug is adminis- 
tered at short intervals or repeated, the size of the dose should be 
reduced. The physiological action of some drugs may be changed, 
by varying the size of the dose. 



22 INTRODUCTORY 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a general description of preventive treatment. 

2. By what channels may drugs be administered? 

3. How are drenches administered? 

4. How are solid drugs administered? 

5. Wliat kind of drugs are administered hypodermically ? 

6. What is an enema? 

7. What proportion of the dose of a drug reconiraended for tlie adult may be 

given to immature animals? 



PART II 

NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



CHAPTER IV 
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 

The organs that form the digestive tract are the mouth, 
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestines and the annexed glands, 
viz. : the salivary, liver, and pancreas. The development of these 
organs differs in the different species of animals. For example, 
solipeds possess a small, simple stomach and capacious, compli- 
cated intestines. Just the opposite is true of ruminants. The 
different species of ruminants possess a large, complicated 
stomach, and comparatively simple intestines. In swine we meet 
with a more highly developed stomach than that of solipeds 
and a more simple intestinal tract. Of all domestic animals the 
most simple digestive tract occurs in the dog. These variations 
in the development of the different organs of digestion, together 
with the difference in the character of the feed and method of 
feeding, cause a variation in the kind of diseases met with in 
the different species. The complicated stomach of ruminants 
predispose them to diseases of this portion of the digestive tract. 
Because of their complicated intestinal tract solipeds are prone 
to intestinal disease. 

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH 

General Discussion. — The mouth is the first division of the 
digestive tract. It is formed by the lips, cheeks, palate, soft 
palate, tongue and teeth. Here the feed is acted on mechanically. 
It is broken up by the teeth and moved about until mixed with 
the saliva and put into condition to pass through the pharynx and 
along the oesophagus to the stomach. The mechanical change 
that the feed is subject to is very imperfect in dogs. In the 
horse it is a slow, thorough process, although greedy feeders are 
not uncommon. The first mastication in the ox is three times 
quicker than in horses, but the process of rumination is slow and 
thorough. 

25 



26 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

Stomatitis. — Simple inflammation of the mouth is frequently 
met with in horses. Ulcerative or infectious inflammation com- 
monly occurs in young, and occasionally in old, debilitated ani- 
mals. This form of sore mouth will be discussed along with other 
infectious diseases, and the following discussion will be confined 
to the non-infectious form of the disease. 

The causes are irritation from the bit, sharp teeth, irritating 
drenches, roughage that contains beards or awns of grasses and 
grains, and burrs that wound the lining membrane of the mouth. 
Febrile, or digestive disorders, or any condition that may inter- 
fere with feeding, may cause tliis disorder. In the latter cases 
the mucous membrane of the mouth is not cleansed by the saliva. 
Particles of feed may decompose and irritating organisms set up 
an inflammation. Putrid or decomposed slops, hot feeds, irri- 
tating drenches and drinking from filthy wallows are common 
causes of inflammation of the mouth in hogs. 

The symptoms vary in the dift'erent cases and species. Slight 
or localized inflammation of the mouth is usually overlooked 
by the attendant. Lampas of horses may be considered a local 
inflammation involving the palate. Lacerations of the cheek 
or tongue by the teeth, or irritating feed, usually result in a slight 
interference with prehension and mastication and more or less 
salivation. Salivation from this cause should not be confused 
with salivation resulting from feeding on white clover. 

In generalized inflammation of the mucous membrane, the 
first symptom usually noticed is the inability to eat. On exam- 
ining the mouth we find the mucous membrane inflamed, hot and 
dry. A part may appear coated. In a short time the odor from 
the mouth is fetid. Following this dry stage of the inflammation 
is the period of salivation. Saliva dribbles from the mouth, and 
in severe cases it is mixed with white, stringy shreds of epithe- 
lium and tinged with blood. In less acute forms of the disease, 
we may notice little blisters or vesicles scattered over the lining 
membrane of the lips, cheeks and tongue. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 27 

The acute form of stomatitis runs a short course, usually 
a few days, and responds readily to treatment. Localized in- 
flammation caused by irritation from teeth, or feeding irritating 
feeds, does not respond so readily to treatment. 

The treatment is largely preventive and consists largely in 
removing the cause. When the mouth is inflamed, roughage 
should he fed rather sparingly, and soft feeds such as slops, 
mashes, or gruels given in place of the regular diet. Plenty of 
clean drinking water should be provided. In the way of medic- 
inal treatment antiseptic and astringent washes are indicated. A 
four per cent water solution of boric acid may be used, or a one- 
half per cent water solution of a high grade coal-tar disinfectant. 
The mouth should be thoroughly irrigated twice daily until the 
mucous surfaces appear normal. 

DEPRAVED APPETITE 

A depraved appetite is met with in all species of farm ani- 
mals, but it is especially common in ruminants. It should not 
be classed as a disease, but more correctly as a bad habit, or 
sjTiiptoni of innutrition or indigestion. The animals afl^ected 
seem to have an irresistible desire to lick, chew and swallow indi- 
gestible and disgusting objects. 

The common cause of depraved appetite is the feeding of a 
ration deficient in certain food elements. A ration deficient in 
protein or in salts is said to cause this disorder. Lack of exer- 
cise, or confinement, innutrition, and a depraved sense of taste 
may favor the development of this disease. For example, when 
sheep are housed closely they may contract the habit of chewing 
one another's fleeces. Lambs are especially apt to contract this 
habit when suckling ewes that have on their udders long wool 
soiled with urine and faeces. 

The first symptom is the desire to chew, lick or eat indi- 
gestible or filthy substances. Horses and cattle may stand and 
lick a board for an hour or more ; cattle may chew the long hair 



28 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

from the tails of horses ; sheep may nibble wool ; sows may within 
a short time after giving birth to their pigs, kill and eat them ; 
chickens may pick and eat feathers. Innutrition may accompany 
the abnormal appetite, as very frequently the affected animal 
shows a disposition to leave its feed in order to eat these injurious 
and innutritions substances. In ruminants, the wool or hair 
may form balls and obstruct the opening into the third compart- 
ment, causing chronic indigestion and death. 

The treatment consists in the removal of the cause. Feeding 
a ration that meets the needs of the system, clean quarters and 

Fig. S. Fig. 9. 




1^- 




FiG. 8. — Photograph of model of horse's stomach: (A) left portion, (C) oesophagus, (D) 

right portion, and (E) intestine. 

Fig. 9. — Photograph of model of stomach of ruminant: (A) rumen, (B) reticulum, (C) 

omasum, and (E) abomasum. 

plenty of exercise are the most important preventive lines of 
treatment. In such cases medicinal treatment (saline and bitter 
tonics) may be indicated. It is usually advisable to remove the 
affected animals from the herd or flock in order to prevent others 
from imitating them. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH 

There is a remarkable difference in the development of the 
stomachs of solipeds and ruminants. 

The horse's stomach (Fig. 8) is simple and has a capacity 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



29 



of three or four gallons. The left portion is lined with a cuticular 
mucous membrane, and the right portion with a glandular 
mucous membrane that has in it the glands that secrete the 
gastric juice. The most important digestive change in the feed 
is the action of the gastric juice on the proteids and their conver- 
sion into the simpler products, proteoses and peptones. 

Ruminants have a compound stomach (Figs. 9 and 10). 
The capacity of the stomach of the ox is between twenty and 
thirty gallons. The four compartments into which it is divided 







''^^^S^*' 



Fig. 10. — AvSection of the wall of the rumen and reticulum, showing the oesophageal groove: 
(C, C) lips of groove; (B) opening from CESophagus; and (A) opening into omasum. 

are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum or true stom- 
ach. The rumen is the largest compartment, with a capacity of 
more than twenty gallons. The reticulum is the smallest, with 
a capacity of about one-half gallon. 

After a brief mastication, the food passes directly to the 
rumen. Here it is subjected to a churning movement that mixes 
and presses the contents of the rumen forward in the direction 
of the oesophageal opening, where it is ready for regurgitation. 
It is then carried back to the mouth, remasticated and returned 



30 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

to the rumen. This is termed rumination. All food material 
that is sufficiently broken up is directed toward the opening 
into the third compartment by the oesophageal grove (Fig. 10), 
a demi-canal that connects this with the oesophageal opening. 

The third compartment, the omasum, communicates anteri- 
orly with the second and first, and posteriorly with the fourth 
compartment or true stomach. The interior arrangement of this 
compartment is most singular. It is divided by a number of 
large folds of the lining membrane between which are smaller 
folds. It is between these folds that the contents pass. 

The first three compartments possess no glands capable of 
secreting a digestive juice. However, important digestive 
changes occur. The carbohydrates are digested by means of 
enzymes contained in the feed. The most important function of 
the rumen and omasum is the maceration of the fibrous sub- 
stances, and the digestion of the cellulose. Between sixty and 
seventy per cent of the cellulose is digested in the rumen. 

The ahomasum is lined by a gastric mucous membrane. The 
gastric juice secreted converts the protein into peptones. In the 
young a milk curdling ferment is also secreted by the glands of 
this compartment. 

The stomach of the hog is a type between the carnivora and 
ruminant. The digestive changes may be divided into four 
stages. The first period is one of starch conversion ; the second 
period is the same, only more pronounced ; the third period, both 
starch and protein conversion occurs; and the fourth period is 
taken up mostly with protein digestion. 

Acute Indigestion of the Stomach of SoHpeds. — Diseases of 
the stomach are less common in solipeds than in ruminants. The 
simple stomach of the horse and the comparatively unimportant 
place that it occupies in the digestion of the feed renders it less 
subject to disease. Only under the most unfavorable conditions 
for digestion of the feed does this class of disorders occur. Acute 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



31 



indigestion in the form of overloading and fermentation occurs 
in the stomach (Fig. 11). 

The predisposing causes that have to do with the development 
of these disorders, are the small capacity of the stomach and 
the location and smallness of the openings leading from the 
oesophagus and into the small intestines. Greedy eaters are 
more prone to indigestion than animals that eat slowly and are 
fed intelligently. 

The foUoiving exciting causes may be mentioned: Sudden 




Fig. 11. — Dilated stomach of horse. 



changes in ration ; feeding too much green feed or grain ; feed- 
ing frozen or decomposed feeds ; drinking ice-cold water ; and 
violent exercise or work that the animal is not accustomed to, 
immediately after feeding are the common disease-producing 
factors. 

The symptoms may vary from impaired appetite and slight 
restlessness to violent, colicky pains. In the large majority of 
cases the attendant is unable to differentiate between this and 
other forms of acute indigestion. The characteristic symptoms 
are attempts at regurgitation and vomiting, assuming a dog-sit- 



32 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



ting position and finally such nervous s^Tnptoms as champing 
of the jaws, staggering movement and extreme dulness. 

The violent form of gastric indigestion frequently ends in 




Fig. 12. — Rupture of stomach of horse. 

death. Rupture of the stomach is not an uncommon complica- 
tion (Fig. 12). 

The treatment is both preventive and medicinal. This diges- 
tive disorder can be prevented. The feeding of the right kind 
of a ration and in the right way, and avoiding conditions that 
may interfere with tlie digestion of the feed, are the general 
lines of preventive treatment indicated. Such measures are of 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 33 

special importance in the handling of animals that possess an 
individual predisposition toward this class of disease. In mild 
attacks the animal should be subjected to a rigid or careful diet 
during the attack and for a few days later. 

It is advisable to place the animal in a comfortable stall that 
is well bedded with straw and plenty large for it to move about 
in. If a roomy sick-stall can not be provided, a grass lot or barn 
floor may be used. If the weather is chilly or cold, the body 
should be covered with a blanket and roller bandages applied 
to the limbs. 

Bulky drenches should not be given. Stimulants and drugs 
capable of retarding fermentation are indicated. Sometimes 
the administration of a sedative is indicated. Treatment should 
be prompt, as in many cases fermentation of the contents of the 
stomach occurs and gases form rapidly. From two to four ounces 
of oil of turpentine may be given in from six to eight ounces 
of linseed oil. 

Acute Indigestion of the Stomach of Ruminants. — The dif- 
ferent forms of acute indigestion are bloating, overloading of 
the rumen and impaction of the omasum. 

Tympanitis, " Bloating." — This disorder is usually caused 
by animals feeding on green feeds, such as clover, alfalfa and 
green corn, that ferment readily. Stormy, rainy weather seems 
to favor bloating. The consumption of spoiled feeds such as 
potatoes and beets may cause it. The drinking of a large quan- 
tity of water, especially if cold, chills the wall of the rumen and 
interferes with its movement. Frozen feeds may act in the same 
way. Sudden changes in the feed, inflammation of the rumen, 
and a weak peristaltic movement of the paunch resulting from 
disease or insufficient nourishment are frequent causes. It may 
occur in chronic disease. In tuberculosis, bloating sometimes 
occurs. 

The symptoms are as follows : The paunch or rumen occu- 
pies the left side of the abdominal cavity, hence the distention of 
3 



34 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

the abdominal wall Ly the collecting of gas in the nimen occurs 
principally on that side. The gas forms quickly and the dis- 
tended wall is highly elastic and resonant. The animal stops 
eating and ruminating, the back may be arched and the ears 
droop. In the more severe cases the wall of the abdomen is 
distended on both sides, the respirations are quickened and 
labored, the pulse small and quick, the eyes are prominent and 
the mucous membrane congested. Death results from asphyxia 
brought on by the distended paunch pushing forward and inter- 
fering with the movement of the lungs and the absorption of the 
poisonous gases. 

The treatment is both preventive and medicinal. This form 
of acute indigestion can be largely prevented by practising the 
following preventive measures: All changes in the feed should 
be made gradually, especially if the ration fed is heavy, or the 
new ration consists largely of green, succulent feed, (/"attle 
pasturing on clover should be kept under close observation. It 
is not advisable to pasture cattle on rank growths of clover that 
are wet with dew or a light rain. Bloating can be quickly re- 
lieved by puncturing the wall of the paunch with the trocar 
and cannula. The operation is quite simple and is not followed 
by bad results. The instrument is plunged through the walls of 
the abdomen and rumen in the most prominent portion of the 
flank, midway between the border of the last rib and the point 
of the haunch (Fig. 13). The trocar is then withdrawn from 
the camiula. After the gas has escaped through the cannula, 
the trocar is replaced and the instrument withdrawn. After 
using the trocar and cannula, the instrument should be cleaned 
by placing it in boiling hot water. It is advisable to wash the 
skin at the seat of the operation with a disinfectant before oper- 
ating. In chronic tympanitis, it is sometimes advisable to leave 
the cannula in position by tying a tape to the flange, passing it 
around the body and tying. 

As a cathartic for cattle, we may give one quart of linseed oil 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



35 



and from two to four ounces of turpentine, or one to two pounds 
of Epsom or Glauber's salts, dissolved in plenty of water. Sheep 
may be given about one-fourth the dose recommended for cattle. 
Overloading the Rumen.— This form of indigestion occurs 
when ruminants have access to feeds that they are not accus- 
tomed to. As a result, they eat greedily and the mass of feed in 
the rumen becomes so heavy that the walls of the organ can not 




Fig. 13. — The X indicates the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with 
trocar and cannula in "bloat." 

move it about, and digestion is interfered with. This is espe- 
cially true of succulent feeds. A diseased condition of the ani- 
mal predisposes it to this disorder. If after eating an excessive 
amount of dry, innutritions fodder, the animal drinks freely of 
cold water, acute symptoms of overloading are manifested. 

The general symptoms occurring in overloading resembles 
those seen in bloating. The symptoms may be mild and extend 
over a period of several days, or it may take on a highly acute 



36 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

form, terminating fatally within a few hours. The acuteness of 
the attack depends on the character and quantity of feed eaten. 
If a large quantity of green feed is eaten, fermentation occurs 
and the animal may die within a few hours. The swelling on 
the left side has a doughy feel. It is not as elastic and resonant 
as in bloat, even when complicated by some gas formation. The 
animal may stop ruminating, refuse to eat, and act dull. In the 
more severe cases the respirations are hurried and labored, the 
pulse small and quick and the expression of the face indicates 
pain. Colicky pains sometimes occur. Death may occur from 
shock or asphyxia. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. This disease 
can be prevented by using the necessary precautions to prevent 
animals from overeating. If gas forms, the trocar and cannula 
should be used. A drench of from one to two pounds of Epsom 
or Glauber's salts should be given. Sheep may be given from 
four to six ounces of Epsom or Glauber's salts. We should 
endeavor to stimulate the movement of the paunch by pressure 
on the flank with the hand, throwing cold water on the wall of 
the abdomen and by hypodermic injections of strychnine. Ku- 
menotomy should be performed when necessary. This operation 
consists in opening the walls of the abdomen and rumen, and 
removing a part of the contents of the rumen. This is not a 
dangerous operation when properly performed, and should not 
be postponed until the animal is too weak to make a recovery. 

Impaction of the Omasum. — This disease may occur as a 
complication of other forms of acute indigestion and diseases 
accompanied by an abnormal body temperature. Feeds that are 
dry and innutritions commonly cause it. Other causes are an 
excessive quantity of feed, sudden changes in the diet and drink- 
ing an insufficient quantity of water. 

As in other diseases of the stomach, the appetite is dimin- 
ished, rumination ceases or occurs at irregular intervals, and the 
animal is more or less feverish. Bloating and constipation may 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 37 

occur. The animal may lose flesh, is weak, walks stiffly and 
grunts as though in pain when it moves about in the stall and 
at each respiration. In the acute form, marked symptoms are 
sometimes manifested. At first the animal acts drowsy; later 
violent nervous symptoms may develop. 

The course of this disease varies from a few days to several 
weeks. Death frequently occurs. Frequently a diarrhoea accom- 
panics recovery, a portion of the fa3ces appearing black with 
polished surfaces, as though they had been baked. 

The preventive treatment consists in practising the necessary 
precautions against the development of this disease by avoiding 
sudden changes in the feed, the feeding of dry, innutritions feeds 
in too large amounts, allowing animals plenty of water and pro- 
viding them with salt. The best purgative to give is Glauber's 
or Epsom salts in from one- to two-pound doses, dissolved in at 
least one gallon of water. This physic may be repeated in from 
twelve to eighteen hours if necessary. Two drachms of tincture 
of nux vomica and one ounce of alcohol may be given in a drench 
three times daily. Hypodermic injections of strychnine, eserine, 
or pilocarpine are useful in the treatment of this disease. When 
recovery begins, the animal should be allowed moderate exercise 
and be fed food of a laxative nature. 

Foreign Bodies in the Stomach of Ruminants. — Foreign 
bodies such as hair balls and wire are very commonly found in 
the reticulum. This is because of the habits of this class of ani- 
mals. Cattle eat their feed hastily and do not pick it over as ^ 
carefully as does the horse. 

Smooth, round objects do no appreciable harm unless they 
block the opening into the third compartment of the stomach. 
This frequently occurs in wool-eating lambs. Sharp-pointed ob- 
jects may penetrate the surrounding tissues or such organs as the 
spleen, diaphragm, and pericardial sack. If these organs are 
injured by the foreign body serious symptoms develop. The 
general symptoms are pain, fever, weakness and marked emacia- 



38 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

tion. It is very difficult to form a correct diagnosis, as the disease 
comes on without any apparent cause. Sometimes a swelling is 
noticed in the right and inferior abdominal region. If the heart 
becomes injured, symptoms of pericarditis are manifested. 

The treatment is largely preventive. Special care should 
be used to avoid getting foreign substances into the feed given 
to cattle. The feed troughs should be kept clean ; we should avoid 
dropping nails and staples into the feed when repairing the silo 
or grain bin ; and pieces of baling wire should be removed from 
straw or hay. Feeds known to be dirty should be run through 
a fanning mill before feeding. 

Inflammation of the Stomach of Swine. — Overloading and 
feeding spoiled feed are common causes of inflammation of the 
stomach. Swill-fed hogs are most commonly affected with this 
disorder. Overloading more often results in an inflammation of 
the stomach if the overloading follows the feeding of a light 
ration, and the weather is extremely warm. Hogs that are accus- 
tomed to eating salt may eat too much of it when fed to them 
after it is withheld for a week or longer, and a large quantity of 
water is taken soon afterwards. Slop containing alkaline wash- 
ing powders and soaps irritate the stomach and intestines and 
cause a serious inflammation. 

The symptoms are loss of appetite, restlessness and some- 
times colicky pains. The hog usually wanders ofi^ by itself, acts 
dull, grunts, lies down in a quiet place or stands with the back 
arched and the abdomen held tense. Vomiting commonly occurs. 
Sometimes the animal has a diarrhcca. The body temperature 
may be above normal. 

The treatment consists in avoiding irritating feeds and sud- 
den changes in the kind or quantity of feed fed. Drenching with 
hot water, or with about one ounce of ipecacuan may be prac- 
tised. From one to three ounces of castor oil, depending on 
the size of the hog, may be given. After recovery the hogs 
should be confined in a comfortable pen and fed an easily digested 
ration. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



39 



DISEASES OF THE IISTTESTIIfES 







General Discussion. — The intestinal tract of solipeds is the 
best developed of any of the domestic animals (Fig. 14). It 
is divided into two jDortions, 
small and large. The small in- 
testine is a little over seventy 
feet in length and about one 
and one-half inches in diameter. 
The mucous membrane lining- 
presents a large absorbing sur- 
face and is well supplied with 
absorbing vessels that take up 
the sugars, proteids and fats, 
which are finally distributed to 
the body cells by the blood capil- 
laries. In addition to these 
absorbing vessels the mucous 
membrane contains intestinal 
glands that secrete the intesti- 
nal juice. Other digestive se- 
cretions from the pancreatic 
gland and the liver are poured 
into the small intestine near its 
origin. These digestive juices 
act on the proteids, sugars, 
starches and fats^ 
them into substances that 
capable of being absorbed. 

After disengaging itself from 
the mass of loops lodged in the 
region of the left flank, the small intestine crosses to the region 
of the riffht flank, where it terminates in the first division of the 
large intestine. 

The large intestine is formed by the following divisions: 



changing 



are 




Fig. 14. — Pnotograph of model of di- 
gestive tract of horse : (C) oesophagus ; 
(B, D) stomach; (F) liver; (E, G, H) small 
intestine; and (I to W) large intestine. 



40 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

caecum, double colon, floating colon and rectum. The ciccum 
is a large blind pouch that has a capacity of about seven gallons. 
The double colon is the largest division of the intestines. It is 
about twelve feet in length and has a capacity of about eighteen 
gallons. This portion of the intestine terminates in the region 
of the left flank in the floating colon. The latter is about ten 
feet in length and about twice the diameter of the small intestine, 
from which it can readily be distinguished by its sacculated walls. 
The rectum is the terminal portion of the intestinal tract. It 
is about one and one-half feet in length and possesses heavy, 
elastic walls. 

Fermentation and cellulose digestion occur in the caecum 
and double colon. It is in the floating colon that the fa?ces are 
moulded into balls. The faeces are retained in the rectum until 
defecation takes place. 

The intestinal tract of cattle is longer than that of soli- 
peds and the difterent divisions are not as well defined as in the 
horse's intestine and about one-half its diameter. The large 
intestine is about thirty-five feet in length and its capacity six 
or seven gallons (Fig. 15). 

Acute Intestinal Indigestion of Solipeds. — Acute indiges- 
tion is more connnon in horses and mules than it is in any of the 
other domestic animals. Because of the difference in the causes 
and symptoms manifested, we may divide it into the following 
forms : spasmodic, flatulent and obstruction colic. 

The predisposing causes are general and digestive debility 
resulting from the feeding of an insufficient or unsuitable ration, 
and general and parasitic diseases of the intestine, l^^ervous, 
well-bred horses are most susceptible to nervous or spasmodic 
colic. 

The direct causes are improper methods of feeding and water- 
ing; giving the animal severe or unusual exercise immediately 
before or after feeding ; the feeding of spoiled or green feeds and 
new grains ; chilling of the body ; imperfect mastication of feed 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



41 



because of defective teeth ; obstruction of the intestine by worms. 

The feeding of grain at a time when the animal is not in fit 
condition to digest it results 
in imperfect digestion in 
both the stomach and intes- 
tine. This leads to irritation 
of the intestine and abnor- 
mal fermentation of its con- 
tents. The drinking of a 
large quantity of water im- 
mediately after feeding grain 
flushes at least a part of the 
undigested grain from the 
stomach through the small 
intestine and into the cae- 
cum. New grains, such as 
new oats, are hurried along 
the small intestine and reach 
the large intestine practically 
undigested. The two latter 
conditions are common causes 
of flatulent or loind colic. 
Sudden change in the ration, 
especially to a gTeen feed, 
may result in intestinal irri- 
tation and flatulence. 

Horses that are gTeedy 
feeders and have sharp, un- 
even, smooth or diseased teeth 
are unable to masticate the 
feed properly. This results in unthriftiness caused by imperfect 
digestion and assimilation of the feed. Such animals usually 
suffer from a catarrhal or chronic inflammation of the intestine, 
and may have periodic attacks of acute indigestion or colic. 




Fig. 15. — Photograph of model of diges- 
tive tract of ruminant: (C) oesophagus; (A) 
rumen; (V) reticulum; (B) omasum; (N) aboma- 
sum; (D, R, I) small intestine; and (G, F, K, .J) 
large intestine. 



42 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



Obstruction colic is very often caused by the feeding of too 
much roughage in the form of straw, shredded fodder, or hay. 
Debility often contributes to this form of indigestion, and 
the double colon may become badly impacted with alimentary 
matter. 

Worms may irritate the intestinal mucous membrane and 
interfere with digestion, obstruct the intestine and cause debility 
and circulatory disturbances. The large round worm may form 
a tangled mass and completely fill a portion of the double colon. 




ksiMBKf? 



Fig. 10. — A yearling colt that died of aneurism culic. 



Some species attach themselves to the intestinal wall, suck the 
blood of the host and cause anaemia and debility. Colic resulting 
from circulatory disturbances is not common. The female of 
a certain species of strongulus deposits eggs in the mucous 
membrane. On hatching, the larva^ may enter a blood capillary, 
drift along in the blood stream and finally come to rest in a 
large blood-vessel that supplies a certain portion of the intestines 
with blood. Here the parasite develops. The wall of the vessel 
becomes irritated and inflamed, pieces of fibrin flake off and 
drift along the blood stream until finally a vessel too small for 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 43 

the floating particle to pass through is reached and the vessel 
becomes plugged. The loop of intestine supplied by it receives 
no blood. A temporary paralysis of the loop occurs, which per- 
sists until a second vessel is able to take over the function of the 
one that is plugged. This form of colic is most common in old 
horses (Fig. 16). 

Such complications of acute indigestion as twisting, infolding 
and displacement of the intestine may occur. It is not uncom- 
mon for a stallion to suffer from strangulated hernia, due to a 
rather large internal ingTiinal ring and a loop of the intestine 
passing through it and into the inguinal canal or scrotum. Such 
displacements are usually accompanied by severe colicky pains. 

The symptoms vary in the different cases. In the mild form, 
the colicky pains are not prominent, but in the acute form, the 
animal is restless, getting up and down in the stall and rolling 
over. These movements are especially marked when the abdom- 
inal pain is severe. 

In the spasmodic form the attack comes on suddenly, the 
colicky pains are severe, and the peristaltic movement of the intes- 
tine is marked and accompanied by loud intestinal sounds. In 
most cases of indigestion characterized by fermentation and col- 
lections of gas in the intestine there is gastric tympany as well. 

Acute indigestion characterized by impaction of the large 
intestine pursues a longer course than the forms just mentioned, 
and the abdominal pain is not severe. 

Congestion and inflammation of the intestine may result 
from the irritation produced by the feed. When this occurs, the 
abdominal pain is less violent. The animal usuall}^ acts dull, 
the walk is slow and unsteady, and the respirations and pulse 
beats may be quickened. 

A large percentage of the cases of acute indigestion terminate 
fatally. The course of the disease varies from a few hours to 
several days. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. The preven- 



44 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

tive treatment is by far the most important. This consists in 
observing right methods of feeding and caring for horses. The 
attendant should note the condition of the animal before feeding 
grain, feed regularly and avoid sudden changes in feed. If a 
horse has received unusual exercise, it is proper to feed hay 
first, and when the animal is cooled out, water and feed grain. 
Drinking a small quantity of water when tired or following 
a meal is not injurious, but a large quantity of water taken at 
such times is injurious and dangerous to the health of the animal. 
The feeding of spoiled or mouldy feeds to horses is highly 
injurious. 

The horse should be given a roomy, comfortable stall that is 
well bedded, or a clean grass lot. If the attack appears when the 
animal is in harness, we should stop working it and remove the 
harness immediately. Work or exercise usually aggravates the 
case and may cause congestion and inflammation of important 
body organs. In cold weather the animal should be protected 
by blankets. If the pain is violent, sedatives may be given. The 
gaseous disturbances should be relieved by puncturing the wall 
of the intestine with the trocar and cannula. Rectal injections 
of cold water may be resorted to. Fluid extract of cannabis 
indica in quarter ounce doses and repeated in one hour may be 
given in linseed oil. In all cases it is advisable to drench the 
animal with one pint of raw linseed oil and two ounces of turpen- 
tine. Strychnine, eserine and pilocarpine are the drugs com- 
monly used by the veterinarians in the treatment of acute indi- 
gestion. Small and repeated doses of the above drugs are pre- 
ferred to large doses. This is one of the diseases that requires 
prompt and skilled attention. 

Sharp, uneven or diseased teeth should receive the necessary 
attention. In old horses, chopped hay or ground feeds should 
be fed when necessary. Debility resulting from hard work, 
wrong methods of feeding and intestinal disorders must be cor- 
rected before the periodic attacks of indigestion can be relieved. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 45 

If the presence of intestinal worms is suspected, the necessary 
treatment for ridding the animal of these parasites should be 
resorted to. 

Bitter or saline tonics should be administered in the feed 
when necessary. The following formula is useful as a digestive 
tonic : Sodium bicarbonate and sodium sulfate, one pound of 
each, powdered gentian one-half pound, and oil meal five pounds. 
A small handful of this mixture may be given with the feed two 
or three times daily. 

Inflammation o£ the Intestines. — The same causes mentioned 
in inflammation of the stomach and acute indigestion may cause 
this disease. It is most frequent at times when there are gTcat 
variations in the temperature. Sudden cold or any influence 
that chills the surface of the body, or internal cold caused by 
drinking ice water or eating frozen feed, may cause it. The 
infectious forms of enteritis are caused by germs and ptomaines 
in the feed. Drinking filthy water or eating spoiled, mouldy 
feeds are common causes. In cattle pasturing in low, marshy 
places, enteritis may be common. The toxic form is caused by 
irritating poisons, such as caustic acids, alkalies and meat brine. 

In the mild form of enteritis the appetite is irregular, the 
animal acts dull and stupid and may be noticed lying down more 
than common. Slight abdominal pains occur, especially follow- 
ing a meal. An elevation in the body temperature may be noted 
and the animal may drink more water than usual. Constipation 
or a slight diarrhoea may be present. The iseces may be soft and 
foul smelling, coated with mucus, and slightly discolored with 
blood. 

In the severe form of enteritis pressure on the abdomen may 
cause pain, the respiration and pulse beats are quickened and 
the body temperature is elevated. The abdominal pain may be 
severe and the animal is greatly depressed or acts dull. The 
movement of the intestines is suppressed at first and constipation 
occurs. Fermentation and the formation of gas may take place. 



46 N0N-SP1']CIFIC OR GJ'JNERAL DISEASES 

Later tlie intestinal p(>.ristalsi.s increases and a fonl-sniellini!; 
diarrhoea sets in that is often mixed with blood. In the toxic 
form there may be marked nervous symptoms. Spasms, convul- 
sions, stupefaction and coma may be manifested. 

In the mild form recovery usually occurs within a few days. 
The more serious foi'ms of the disease do not terminate so favor- 
ably. In the toxic form death usually ocxnirs within a few days. 

The large majority of cases of enteritis can be prevented by 
practising' tlie necessary ■preventive measvres. It is very neces- 
sary that animals exposed to cold be provided with dry sleeping 
(juartcrs tluit are free from draughts. Where a ininiber of ani- 
mals are fed a heavy grain I'iition, or fed from the same trough, 
they should be ke2)t under close observation. This is necessary 
in order to detect cases of indigestion or ovei-feeding early, and 
resort to the necessary lines of treatment, so as to prevent further 
irritation to the intestinal ti'act. Live stock should not be forced 
to drink water that is ice-cold. Low, poorly-drained land is not 
a safe pasture for cattle and horses. Spoiled roots, grains and 
silage, mouldy, dirty roughage and decomposed slops should not 
be fed to live stock. 

21ie treatment consists in withholding all feed and giving the 
animal comfortable, quiet quarters — warm quarters and pro- 
tection from the cold, providing the animal with a heavy straw 
bed, or with blankets if necessary, if the weather is cold. From 
five to forty grains of calomel may be given, depending upon the 
size of the animal and the frequency of the dose, two or three 
times a day. In case the animal is suffering severe pain, mor- 
phine given hypodermically may be indicated. In the mild form 
and at the very beginning of the attack, linseed oil may be 
administered to the larger animals. The dose is about one quart. 
The smaller animals may be given castor oil in from one- to four- 
ounce doses. 

When convalescence is reached the animal should be fed 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 47 

very carefully, as the digestive tract is not in condition to digest 
heavy rations or feeds that ferment readily. 

Diarrhoea. — Diarrhoea occurs as a symptom of irritation and 
inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane. Sudden 
changes in the feed, the feeding of a succulent green ration, 
severe exercise when the animal is not in condition for it, and 
chronic indigestion may cause diarrhoea in the absence of an 
intestinal inflammation. 

The follovnng symptoms may be noted : Animals affected by a 
diarrhoea act dull and weak; thirst is increased and the animal 
may show evidence of fever ; the intestinal evacuations are soft, 
thin, and sometimes have an offensive odor. If the diarrhoea con- 
tinues for several days, the animal loses flesh rapidly and the 
appetite is irregular. In such cases weakness is a prominent 
symptom. 

Recovery usually occurs when the animal is dieted and rested. 

The treatment consists in giving a physic of linseed or castor 
oil. Horses and cattle may be given from one-half to one quart 
of linseed oil ; sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of 
castor oil. Feed should be withheld. Morphine may be given 
hypodermically to the large animals after a period of six to eight 
hours ffjllowing the administration of the physic. 

The following formula is quite useful in checking diarrhoea : 
salol one-half ounce, bismuth subnitrate one ounce, and bicar- 
Ijonate of soda two ounces. The dose of this mixture is from one 
to four drachms, depending on the size of the animal, three or 
four times a day. 

White Scours or Diarrhoea in Young Animals. — Young 
animals, when nursing the mother or fed by hand, frequently 
develop congestion and inflammation of the stomach and intes- 
tines. This disorder is characterized by a diarrhoea. 

The causes may be grouped under two heads : wrong methods 
of feeding and care, and specific infection. 

The first milk of the mother is a natural laxative and aids 



48 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

in ridding the intestine of the young of such waste material 
(meconium) as collects during fetal life. If this milk is with- 
held, the intestine becomes irritated, constipation occurs, fol- 
lowed by a diarrhcpa or serious sj^roptoms of a nervous character, 
caused by the poisonous effect of the toxic substances absorbed 
from the intestine on the nervous system. 

Changes in the ration fed the mother, excitement, unusual 
exercise and disease change the composition of the mother's 
milk. Such milk is irritating to the stomach and intestines of 
the young. This irritation does not always develop into a diar- 
rhoea, but may result in a congestion of the stomach. 

When the young are raised artificially or by hand, and fed 
milk from difi^erent mothers of the same or different species, or 
changed from whole to skim milk, acute aiid chronic digestive 
disorders that are accompanied by a diarrhd-a are common. 
Feeding calves from filthy pails, allowing them to drink too 
rapidly and giving them fermented milk are common causes of 
scours. 

White scours caused by irritating germs is a highly infectious 
disease. The disease-producing germs gain entrance to the body 
by way of the digestive tract and the umbilical cord. 

Insanitary conditions, such as dark, cold, damp, filthy quar- 
ters, lower the vitality of young animals, and predispose them to 
digestive disorders as well as other diseases. 

The symptoms are as follows : Constipation accompanied by 
a feverish condition precedes the diarrhoea ; colicky pains are 
sometimes manifested ; the diarrhcra is usually accompanied by 
depression, falling off in appetite and weakness. At first the 
intestinal discharges are not very foul smelling; later the 
odor is very disagreeable. The faeces may be made up largely 
of undigested, decomposed milk that adheres to the tail and 
hind parts. If the diarrhoea is severe, the animal refuses to 
suckle or drink from the pail, and loses flesh rapidly. It is 
usually found lying dowm. The ears droop and the depression 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 49 

is marked. The body temperature may vary from several degrees 
above to below the average normal. 

The infectious form, of white scours may be diagnosed by the 
history of the outbreak. In this form of the disease, a large 
percentage of the young are affected and the death-rate is very 
high. 

Calves and lambs frequently die of an acute congestion of 
the fourth stomach. In this disease, the symptoms appear shortly 
after feeding. It is characterized by colicky pains, convulsions 
and coma. 

The treatment is largely preventive. Young animals should 
be provided with dry, clean, well-ventilated quarters and allowed 
plenty of exercise. Colts thrive best if allowed to run in a blue 
grass pasture with the mother. If the mother is worked, suitable 
provisions in the way of quarters and frequent nursing should 
be provided. Calves, lambs and pigs are the most frequent 
sufferers from insanitary quarters. In breeding, we should 
always strive to get strong, vigorous, healthy young. The care 
given the mother in the way of exercise and feeding is an im- 
portant factor here. • 

The first milk of the mother should not be withheld from the 
young, especially if the animal is raised by hand. We must 
also feed it regularly and not too much at any one time. Any 
change in the milk should be made gradually, and it is usually 
advisable to reduce the ration slightly when such a change is 
made, so as not to overwork the digestive organs. Pails and 
bottles from which the animal feeds should be kept clean. 

Colts raised on cow's milk must be fed and cared for care- 
fully. The milk must be sweet and made more digestible by 
diluting it with one-third water. A little sugar may be added. 
It is very advisable to add from one-half to one ounce of lime 
water to each pint of milk fed. Frequent feeding is very neces- 
sary at first, and we must not underestimate the quantity of 
4 



50 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

milk necessary to keep the colt in good condition. It should be 
tanght to eat grain as soon as possible. 

Because of the irritated condition of the stomach and intes- 
tine, the animal suffering from diarrhoea is unable to digest its 
feed. For this reason it is very important to withhold all feed 
for at least twenty-four hours. Water should be provided. The 
alimentary tract is relieved of the irritating material by giving 
the animal a physic of castor or linseed oil. The dose varies 
from one-quarter to one-half ounce for the lamb and from one 
to four ounces for the colt or calf. It is advisable in most cases 
to follow this with the following mixture : bicarbonate of soda 
one ounce, bismuth subnitrate one-half ounce, and salol one- 
quarter ounce. The dose for the colt and calf is one teaspoonful 
three times a day. Lambs and pigs may be given from one- 
fourth to one-half the above dose. 

It is usually advisable to give ewes and sows a physic if 
their young develop a diarrhoea. Mothers that are heavy milkers 
may be given a physic the second or third day following birth. 
The ration should be reduced as well during the first week, 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF POULTRY 

General Discussion. — The digestive tract of poultry is com- 
posed of the following organs : mouth, gullet, crop, stomach, giz- 
zard and intestines, with the two large glands, the liver and 
pancreas. The digestion of the feed begins in the crop. Here 
the feed is held for a short time, mixed with certain fluids and 
softened. On reaching the stomach it becomes mixed with the 
digestive fluid secreted by the gastric glands. This second 
digestive action consists in thoroughly soaking the feed in the 
gastric juice, making it soft and preparing it for maceration by 
the heavily muscled gizzard. Following maceration it passes into 
the intestine. It is here that the digestive action is completed and 
absorption occurs. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 51 

Under the conditions of domestication, poultry are subject 
to a great variety of intestinal disorders. 

Diseases of the Crop. — Impaction and inflammation are the 
two common diseases of the crop. Large, impacted crops are 
usually caused by the feeding of too much dry feed, fermentation 
of the contents of the crop and foreign bodies that obstruct the 
opening from the organ. 

Inflammation of the crop is caused by excessive use of condi- 
ments in the feed, putrid or spoiled feeds and eating caustic 
drugs, such as lime and rat poison. 

The symptoms are dulness, an indisposition to move about, 
drooping wings and efforts to eject gases and liquids. The crop 
is found greatly distended and either hard or soft, depending on 
the quantity of feed present and the cause of the distention. 
If fermentation is present the crop usually feels soft. 

The preventive treatvient consists in practising proper 
methods of feeding. The curative treatment of a recent case 
consists in manipulating the mass of feed, breaking it up and 
forcing it upwards toward the mouth. If difiiculty in breaking 
up the mass is experienced, it is advisable to administer a table- 
spoonful of castor oil to the bird. 

If the above manipulations are unsuccessful, an operation is 
necessary. This consists in making an opening through the skin 
and the wall of the crop and removing the contents with tweezers. 
The opening must be closed with sutures. The proper aseptic 
precautions must be observed. 

In inflammation of the crop, the bird should be dieted for at 
least one day, and one teaspoonful of castor oil given as a laxative. 

Acute and Chronic Indigestion. — The recognition of special 
forms of indigestion in poultry is difficult. A flock of poultry 
that is subject to careless and indifferent care may not thrive and 
a number of the birds develop digestive disorders. This may be 
indicated by an abnormal or depraved appetite and emaciated 
condition. Constipation or diarrhoea may occur. In the more 



52 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

severe cases the bird acts dull, tlie feathers are ruffled aud it 
moves about very little. 

The treatment consists in removing the cause, and giving the 
flock a tonic mixture in the feed. The following mixture may be 
used: powdered gentian and powdered ginger, eight ounces of 
each, Glauber's salts four ounces, and sulfate of iron two ounces. 
One ounce of the above mixture may be given in ten pounds 
of feed. 

White Diarrhoea of Young Chickens. — White diarrhoea is 
of the greatest economic importance to the poultryman. The 
loss of chicks from this disease is greater than the combined loss 
resulting from all other diseases. It is stated by some authors 
that not less than fifty per cent of the chickens hatched die from 
white diarrh(ra. 

Such a heavy death-rate as is attributed to this disease can 
not result from improper methods of handling and insanitary 
conditions. Before it was proven that white diarrhoea was caused 
by specific germs, a great deal of emphasis was placed on such 
causes as debilitated breeding stock, improper incubation, poorly 
ventilated, overcrowded brooders, too high or too low tempera- 
tures and filth. Such conditions are important predisposing 
factors, and may, in isolated cases, result in serious intestinal 
disorders. 

The microorganisms causing this disease belong to both the 
plant and animal kingdoms. Infection usually occurs within 
a day or two following hatching. Chicks two or three weeks of 
age seldom develop the acute form of the disease. Incubator 
chicks are the most susceptible to the disorder. 

The folloiving symptoms occur: The chicks present a droopy, 
sleepy appearance ; the eyes are closed, and the chicks huddle 
together and peep much of the time ; the whitish intestinal dis- 
charge is noticed adhering to the flufl^ near the margins of the 
vent, and the young bird is very weak ; death may occur within 
the first few days. After the first two weeks the disease becomes 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 53 

less acute. In the highly acute form the chicks die without show- 
ing the usual train of s^nnptoms. 

It is very easy to differentiate between the infectious and 
the non-infectious diarrhoea. In the latter, the percentage of 
chicks affected is small and the disease responds to treatment 
more readily than does the infectious form. The death-rate in 
the latter form is about eighty per cent. 

The ireatment of diarrhoea in chicks from any cause is pre- 
Tentive. This consists in removing the cause. Ko person can 
successfully handle poultry if he does not give the necessary 
attention to sanitation. Poultry houses, runs, watering foun- 
tains and feeding places must be constantly cleaned and disin- 
fected. The degTee of attention necessary depends on the sur- 
roundings, the crowded condition of the poultry houses and runs, 
and the presence of disease in the flock. If disease is present, 
we can not clean and disinfect the quarters too often. The attend- 
ant can not overlook details in handling the incubator or brooder 
and feeding the chicks and be uniformly successful. 

If the disease is known to be present in the flock, the incu- 
bators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected by fumi- 
gating them with formaldehyde gas. If dirty, they should first 
be washed with a water solution of a good disinfectant. For a 
period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after hatching, 
the chicks should receive no feed. Dr. Kaupp recommends as an 
intestinal antiseptic, sulfocarbolate thirty grains, bichloride of 
mercury six gTains, and citric acid three grains, dissolved in 
one gallon of water. This solution should be kept in front of 
the chicks all the time. A water solution of powdered copper 
sulfate (about one-half teaspoonful dissolved in one gallon of 
water) may be used. 

QUESTIOXS 

1. Name the organs that form, the digestiTe apparatus. 

2. What digestive action on the feed occurs in the mouth ? 

3. Describe the causes and symptoms of inflammation of the mouth; de- 

scribe the treatment. 



54 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

4. Give the causes for depraved appetite ; describe the symptoms and treat- 

ment. 

5. Give the capacity of the horse's stomach. 

6. Name the different compartments of the ruminant's stomach. 

7. Give tlie capacity of the stomach of ruminants. 

8. Name the difl'erent kinds of digestion occurring in tlie stomach of the 

hog. 

9. What forms of acute indigestion involve the stomach of solipeds? Give 

causes and treatment. 

10. Give the causes of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants. 

11. Give the treatment for the different forms of indigestion of tlie stomach 

of ruminants. 

12. Name the divisions of small and large intestines of solipeds and rumi- 

nants. 

13. Wliat is the capacity and length of large intestine of solipeds and 

ruminants ? 

14. What are the different forms of acute indigestion of the horses, and 

causes? 

15. Give a general line of treatment for acute indigestion of the horse. 

16. Give the causes of white diarrhoea in the young chicks; give a line of 

treatment. 

17. Name the organs of the digestive apparatus of poultry. 

18. Name the common diseases of the digestive apparatus of poultry, and 

give the causes. 



CHAPTER V 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

General Discussion. — The liver is one of the most important 
glands of the body, as well as the largest. Because of its physio- 
logical influence over the functions of the kidneys, intestines, 
and body in general and the varied functions that it possesses, 
it is frequently affected by functional disorders. 

All of the blood that comes directly from the intestine is re- 
ceived by the liver. It secretes the bile, neutralizes many of the 
poisonous substances and end products of digestion that are 
taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestine, and acts as 
a storehouse for the glycogen. 

It can be readily understood from this brief statement of 
the nature of the liver functions, that any functional disorder 
of the liver may be far reaching in its effect. In many of the 
diseases that involve other organs, the liver may be primarily 
affected. It is difficult to diagnose functional disorders of the 
liver that are responsible for a diseased condition of some other 
body organ, A knowledge of the physiology and pathology of 
the liver is of the greatest importance in the diagnosis of this 
class of disorders. 

In the larger domestic animals, symptoms of liver diseases 
are more obscure than in the small animals. In certain parasitic 
diseases and in mixed and specific infectious diseases, the liver 
may show marked pathological changes. 

Common Causes of Liver Disorders. — Domestic animals 
commonly live under very unnatural conditions. Ill results 
do not follow unless these conditions are so extreme as to violate 
practically all of the health laws. Pampered animals are espe- 
cially prone to liver disorders. The feeding of too heavy and 
too concentrated a ration together with insufficient exercise is 
one of the most common causes of disorders of the liver.- The 

55 



5f) NON-SPECll'IC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

feeding' of a ration tlint in uusuitalile for that particular species 
is a common source of disease in animals. For example, the 
feeding' to carnivora of a ration mjidc up largely of starchy 
feed, and Uic ('(tcdinj^' of a ml ion containing an excessive 
<ju;inlil;y of j)ro1(;iji to hcrhi vorous animals may I'csiilt in in- 
testinal, liver and nervons disorders. Spoiled feed may prove 
highly injurious. (Jatarrlial inflammation of the intestine and 
intestinal parasites may obstruct the hile duct, and interfere 
seriously witli the functions of the liver. 

Hym.jiionis. — In diseases of the liver the appetite is irregu- 
lar or the animal refuses to eat, is constipated, or has diarrlnca. 
'J'lie fa'ces may he grayish colonel or foul suKtlling. (/'oiicky 
pains are sometimes manifested. Usually the animal acts dull 
and weak. A i-aise in body temperature may be noted. The 
visible mucons iiHnnbranes may appear yellowish- or brownish- 
red in <'oloi-. 

Treat tthcjd. — Animals grazing over well drained pastures 
that a)<! fi'(!e from injni'ious weeds and provid(!d with plenty 
of drinking water, seldom develop diseases of the liver. Exer- 
cise, a natural diet and plenty of clean water, as well as prevent- 
ing liver disorders, may be classed among the most important 
of all cui'ative ag<'nts. Laxatives oi- cathartics, such as oils, 
salts, aloes, an<l calomel, in small dos(!S may be given. We ])re- 
fer the administration of oil or aloes to horses, (JIauber's or 
Epsom salts to ruminants, and calomel to dogs. The adminis- 
tration of mill imij III do8(!S of these drugs, and repeating the dose 
after a, sliurt, interval, is preferable to large doses. Alkaline 
tonics are also indicated. The following mixture may he given: 
bicai'bonat(! of soda, sulfate of soda and cojiimon salt, eight 
oun(;<is of each, and powdered gentian and sulfate of iron, four 
ounces of each. Large animals may he given a small table- 
spoonful of this mixture with the feed three times a day. The 
dost; f(M- sheep and hogs is one teaspoonful. A very light, easily 
digested ration should be fed. 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER 57 

QUESTIONS 

1. What can be said of the importance of the liver? 

2. Tell something of its duties as a gland. 

3. In what animals are liver troubles most conspicuous when present? 

4. Give causes of liver disorders. 

5. What are the symptoms? 

6. Wliat are the most important natural cures? 

7- What rule may be given for adapting suitable laxatives to different 
classes of animals? 



CHAPTER VI 
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 

General Discussion. — The urinary apparatus is composed 
of two glands, the kidneys and an excretory apparatus that 
carries the excretion of the kidneys to the outside. 

The kidneys are situated in the superior region of the 
abdominal cavity (suhlumbar) above the peritoneum, and to 
the right and left of the median line. They are highly vascular 
glands, somewhat bean-shaped and of a deep red color. These 
glands are capable of removing from the blood a fluid that is 
essentially different in composition and which, if retained in 
the blood, would be harmful or poisonous to the l)ody tissues. 

The kidney excretions are carried from the pelvis of the 
kidneys by the right and left ureters. These canals terminate 
in the bladder, an oval-shaped reservoir for the urine. This 
organ is situated in the posterior portion of the abdominal 
cavity and at the entrance to the pelvic cavity. Posteriorly, it 
forms a constricted portion or neck. It is here that the urethra 
originates. This canal represents the last division of the excre- 
tory apparatus. In the female, the urethra is short and termi- 
nates in the vulva. In the male it is long and is supported by 
the penis. 

The urine secreted by the kidneys is a body excretion, 
and consists of water, organic matter and salts. The nitrog- 
enous end-products, aromatic compounds, coloring matter, and 
mucin form the organic matter. The nitrogenous end-products 
arid aromatic compounds are urea, uric and hippuric acids, ben- 
zoic acid and ethereal sulfates of phenol and cresol. The salts 
are sulfates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potassium, 
calcium and magnesium. The organic and inorganic matter 
varies with the ration. 

The quantity of urine secreted within a given time varies 
58 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 59 

in the different species and at different times in the same 
individual. In the horse the quantity secreted in twenty-four 
hours varies from tv^elve to fifteen pints ; in cattle from ten to 
forty pints; in sheep from one-half to one and three-quarter 
pints. The normal color of the urine varies. In the horse it is 
yellow or yellowish-red ; in cattle and sheep yellowish ; and in 
the dog a straw yellow. The specific gravity varies with the 
quantity secreted and the ration fed. When the quantity of 
urine secreted is above the average, the specific gravity is 
usually low. 

The Necessity of Examining the Urine. — In diseases of the 
urinary apparatus, a careful examination of the urine is very 
necessary in order to be able to form a correct diagnosis. In 
domestic animals it is impractical to attempt to determine the 
exact amount of urine passed within a certain time, but we can 
make a general estimate of the quantity passed by carefully 
observing the animal and noting the condition of the bedding in 
the stall. The sample of urine to be examined is best taken 
from urine collected at different periods during the day. We 
should note its color and consistency. The different substances 
in the urine can be determined only by determining the specific 
gravity, testing with certain chemical reagents and by making 
microscopic examination of the sediment. Normal urine from 
the horse may be turbid or cloudy and more or less slimy, 
because of the presence of mucin. This is less true of other 
species. In disease the color of the urine may be changed to a 
pale yellow, red or brown. For example, in congestion of the 
kidneys the urine is light in color and rather transparent; in 
southern cattle fever it may be red ; and in azoturia it may be 
brown. 

Excessive Urination. — The horse is the most common 
sufferer from excessive secretion of urine. The most common 
causes are musty feeds, such as hay, grain and shipped feeds. 
New oats, succulent feeds and acrid plants may sometimes cause 



60 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

it. In the fall of the year, when the season is changing from 
warm to cool weather and the horse eliminates less water from 
the body by way of the skin, the kidneys may become more 
active and the qnantity of urine secreted be greatly increased. 
This, however, is a normal physiological condition and should 
not be confused with this disease. 

The first symptom noted is the frequent passing of a large 
quantity of urine. The animal drinks more water than usual 
and the appetite is poor. Dulness and a weak, emaciated condi- 
tion are prominent symptoms. Death occurs unless the cause 
of the disease is removed. If the poisonous substance has been 
acting for some time, it is difficult to cure the animal. 

This disease can be prevented by eliminating spoiled feeds 
from the ration fed to animals in our care. Early in the attack 
the necessary attention to the ration and the feeding of a clean, 
nourishing ration is sufficient to correct the disease. The 
quantity of water drunk by the animal should be limited. Com- 
plete rest is indicated. Laxatives, stimulants and tonics should 
be given if necessary. 

Nephritis. — Congestion and inflammation of the kidneys 
commonly occur in mixed and specific infectious diseases, such 
as septiciemia, pya?mia and influenza. The toxic effect of spoiled 
feeds, impure drinking water, and irritating drugs like can- 
tharides and turpentine may so irritate the kidneys as to cause 
them to become inflamed. Chilling of the skin and nervousness 
or extreme fear may sometimes cause a congestion of these 
organs. Inflammation of the kidneys is a common complication 
of azoturia. Irritation from parasites should be included 
among the causes of this disease. 

The symptoms vary in the different stages of the disease. 
During the period of active congestion the quantity of urine 
secreted is increased. The scant secretion of urine, dark in 
color and thick or turbid, is suggestive of an inflammation of 
the kidneys. The animal moves stiffly, the back may be arched. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 61 

urination is painful and the urine is passed in very small 
amounts. The appetite is irregTilar or suppressed, the pulse 
strong at first but later small and weak, and the body tempera- 
ture is elevated. On making a rectal examination we find the 
bladder empty and the kidneys enlarged and sensitive. 

When the kidneys become so badly diseased that they can no 
longer perform their function of separating from the blood the 
nitrogenous end-products of digestion, ursemic poisoning occurs. 
In this later stage of the disease the animal staggers about if 
moved, and finally goes down in the stall and is unable to get 
up. Death is usually preceded by convulsions and coma. 

The prognosis is very unfavorable, death occurring in the 
majority of cases. In azoturia of horses and in infectious dis- 
eases, the inflammation is nearly always acute. The color of the 
urine, its high specific gravity and the small quantity passed 
are valuable symptoms to consider in the recognition of this 
disease. Chronic inflammation generally develops slowly and 
may not give rise to any very prominent symptoms at first. 

The preventive treatment of nephritis consists in careful 
nursing of animals afl^ected with acute infectious diseases, a 
clean water supply and avoiding the feeding of spoiled feeds. 
The curative treatment is largely careful nursing. The ani- 
mal should be given comfortable, well-ventilated quarters and 
complete rest. Chilling of the skin should be especially guarded 
against by protecting the body with heavy blankets and apply- 
ing roller bandages to the limbs when necessary. The diet 
must be of such a nature as not to increase the work of the 
kidneys. For the first few days the animal should receive very 
little feed or water. Later a sloppy diet of sweet milk, green 
feed and mashes should be fed. Such purgatives as aloes and 
Glauber's salts are indicated at a very early stage in the dis- 
ease. We must encourage the elimination of waste products 
by way of the skin in the larger animals by vigorous rubbing, 
blanketing and the administration of such drugs as pilocarpine. 



62 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

If the animal becomes weak, general and heart tonics may be 
given. 

Cystitis. — Inflammation of the bladder is not an uncommon 
disease of horses. It is commonly caused by retention of the 
urine, calculi in the bladder and chilling of the body. Irritat- 
ing drugs that are eliminated from the body in the urine, and 
infection of the bladder by germs may cause it. 

The symptoms are usually marked. The inflammation is 
characterized by more or less pain, depending on the degree 
of the inflammation, and frequent passing of urine. Only a 
small amount of urine is passed at each attempt, and in severe 
inflammation it may contain pus or blood. Colicky pains some- 
times occur. The pain is usually manifested by a stiff, strad- 
dling gait and tenderness when pressure on the bladder is made 
by introducing the hand into the rectum or vagina, and pressing 
over the region of the bladder. General symptoms, such as 
elevation in body temperature and irregular appetite, may be 
manifested. 

The treatment should be first directed at removing the cause. 
If a cystic calculus is present in the bladder it should be re- 
moved. If the retention of the urine is caused by some local 
condition, and this is very often the case in nervous, well-bred 
animals, this must first be corrected. It is best to feed green 
and soft feeds, such as bran mash and chopped hay, and, if the 
animal will tal^e them, gruels. A physic of castor or linseed 
oil should be given occasionally. It is very necessary that the 
animal be kept quiet. Comfortable, clean quarters and a good 
bed should be provided. Whenever necessary the animal should 
be blanketed. The medicinal treatment consists in irrigating 
the bladder with antiseptic solutions, and administering drugs 
that when eliminated by way of the urine may change its com- 
position and render it less irritating. The following mixture 
may be given: potassium chlorate two ounces, salol one-half 
ounce, and powdered nux vomica one ounce. This mixture 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 63 

may be divided into sixteen powders. One of the powders 
should be given with each feed. 

Retention of the Urine. — This may be due to a variety of 
causes. In the ox and ram, small calculi collect in the S-shaped 
curvature of the urethra, or at its terminal extremity. In the 
horse, cystic calculi are more common than urethral. In cattle 
and hogs, fatty secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of 
the sheath of the male may accumulate, and obstruct the flow 
of urine from the anterior opening. The giving of feed rich in 
salts, concentrated urine resulting from feeding of too dry a 
ration, insufficient exercise and inflammation of the bladder 
are the direct causes of calculi. 

Compression of the urethra by growths or tumors, strictures 
of the urethra, distended bladder, spasm of the neck of the 
bladder in nervous animals, paralysis of the bladder and in- 
juries to the penis are common causes of retention of the urine. 

The early symptoms in ruminants are not usually recognized 
until a day or two after retention of the urine has occurred. 
The symptoms are then quite marked. The animal acts dull, 
refuses to eat, rumination is stopped, and there is a constant 
effort to urinate, as indicated by the raising of the tail and 
rhythmical contractions of the urinary muscles just below the 
anus. Urine may dribble from the sheath or the flow may be 
completely suppressed. The odor of urine may be marked. 

Horses show symjjtoms of abdominal pain. The animal 
may move about the stall, lie down and get up again, or make 
unsuccessful attempts to urinate. On examination the bladder 
is found to be greatly distended with urine. In the horse the 
retention is recognized at an earlier period than in ruminants, 
because of the prompt, decided symptom of pain. 

Ketention of the urine commonly terminates in rupture of 
the bladder in ruminants. When this occurs, the symptoms of 
pain are less evident. Death occurs from uremic poisoning 



64 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

and peritonitis. The outcome is less favorable in ruminants 
than in solipeds. 

Inflammation of the sheath can be readily recognized because 
of the local swelling. 

The following lines of treatment are recommended: A 
ration or feed that favors the formation of calculi should not 
be fed to animals ; inflammation of the sheath should receive 
prompt treatment — this consists in irrigating the part with 
warm, soapy or alkaline water, followed by an antiseptic wash ; 
we may attempt to work the urethral calculi forward and 
out of the S-curve in the urethra ; if this is unsuccessful, ure- 
throtomy for their removal may be attempted. 

The retention of the urine in horses, because of spasm or 
paralysis of certain muscles, may be treated by passing the 
catheter. Sometimes spreading litter under the horse and keep- 
ing it quiet may induce it to urinate. Hot packs over the region 
of the back may be used. The treatment for calculi is entirely 
surgical. The operation for the removal of cystic calculi in the 
horse, although difficult, is followed by good results. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the urinary apparatus. 

2. Give the composition of the urine and quantity secreted in the different 

animals. 

3. State method of determining quantity and composition of urine secreted 

by different domestic animals. 

4. Give tlie causes and treatment of excessive urination. 

5. Give the causes and treatment of congestion and inflammation of the 

kidneys. 

6. Give the causes of cystitis; symptoms; treatment. 

7. Give the causes and treatment of retention of the iirine. 



CHAPTER VII 
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 

General Discussion. — The study of the organs concerned 
with the reproduction of the species is essential in order to 
acquire a knowledge of their several functions. It is only 
through an understanding of these functions that we can pre- 
pare ourselves to correctly recognize, and successfully treat, or 
prevent, such diseases as may involve the organs of generation. 
A knowledge of the structure and function of the generative 
organs of the female is of greater importance from the stand- 
point of disease, than is a similar knowledge of the generative 
organs of the male. The female is concerned with the complete 
reproductive process, which may be divided into four stages. 
These are copulation^ fecundation, gestation and parturition. 
The male is concerned only with copulation and fertilization of 
the ovum by the spermatozoa, while the female must protect 
and nourish the embryo and foetus until it has become suffi- 
ciently developed to live independently of the protection and 
nourishment afforded it within the womb. When the final stage 
of gestation is reached, birth or the act of parturition occurs. 

Genital Organs of the Female. — The female generative 
organs are the ovaries, fallopian tubules, uterus, vagina, vulva 
and mammary glands. 

The ovaries are analogous to the testicles of the male. 
Their function is to secrete ova. This pair of glands is sus- 
pended from the superior region (sub lumbar) of the abdominal 
cavity by folds of the lining membrane. Leading from the 
ovaries, but connected with the surface of these glands only 
during the period of oestrum or heat, are the fallopian tubules. 
Their function is to carry the ovum from the ovaries to the 
uterus. 

5 65 



66 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The uterus or ivomb is a membranous sack situated in the 
sublumbar region and at the inlet to the pelvic cavity. It is 
held in position by numerous folds of the lining membrane of 
the abdominal cavity. We may divide the womb into three 
divisions, cornua, body and cervix. 

The cornua or horns are long and cylindrical in shape. 
This portion of the womb is greatly developed in animals, like 
the sow and bitch, that give birth to several young. In the 
impregnated animal the wall of the cornua that contains one or 
several fetuses, and the body as well, become greatly thickened 
and the lining membrane more vascular. 

The body is short in all domestic animals and connects the 
horns with the cervix or neck. The latter is represented by a 
narrow portion that projects backward into the vagina. In the 
cow tlie cervix is less prominent than in the mare and the 
tissue that forms it, quite firm. In the cow the opening in the 
cervix, the os, is very small. 

The vagina is a museulo-membranous canal that leads from 
the womb. In the mare and cow it is about one foot in length. 
Its function is to take part in copulation and parturition. 

The vulva is the external opening of the maternal passages. 
It shows a vertical slit enclosed by lips, and interiorly it forms 
a passage that is continuous with the vagina. This passage is 
about six inches long in the larger animals. The different 
features that should be noted are the clitoris, a small erectile 
organ located at the inferior portion of the opening, the meatus 
urinaris, the external opening of the urethra, situated in a de- 
pression in the floor of the vulva, and the hymen, an incomplete 
membranous partition that may be found separating the vulva 
from the vagina. 

The manunary glands or udders secrete the milk that 
nourishes the young. The glands vary in number. The mare 
has two, the cow four (Fig. IT), the ewe two and animals that 
give birth to several young, eight or more. Each gland is sur- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 



67 



mounted by a teat or nipple. The glandular tissue consists of 
csecal vesicles that form grape-like clusters around the milk 
tubules. The milk tubules from the different portions of the 
gland converge and form larger tubules that finally empty into 
small sinuses or reservoirs at the base of the teat. Leading 
from these sinuses are one or several milk ducts that open at the 
summit of the teat. 

Genital Organs of the Male. — The genital organs of the 
male are the testicles, the ducts or canals leading from the 




Fia. 17. — Photograph of model of udder of cow: (A) milk duct; (B) milk sinuses; and (C) 

glandular tissue. 



testicles, the seminal vesicles, the glands lying along the urethra, 
and the penis. 

The testicles are the glandular organs that secrete the 
'spermatozoa, the essential elements of the seminal fluid. These 
glands are lodged in the scrotal sack, situated between the two 
thighs.'' ■ 

-->■' Lying dlong* the superior border of the testicles is a mass of 
ducts, the epididymis. The vas deferens is the canal or duct 
■tiJat passes from the epididymis to the region of the bladder and 



68 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

terminates near its neck bj emptying into the seminal vesicles. 

The seminal vesicles are two membranous pouches situated 
just above the bladder. They act as receptacles for the seminal 
fluid. Two short ducts, the ejaculalory , carry the seminal fluid 
from the seminal vesicles to the urethra. 

The prostate glands are situated near the origin of the 
urethra. Cowper's glands lie along the course of the urethra 
and near the origin of the penis. These glands empty their 
secretions into the urethra and dilute the seminal fluid. 

The penis is the male organ of copulation. It originates 
at the arch of the ischium and extends forward between the 
thighs. It may be divided into fixed and free portions. The 
free portion is lodged in the prepuce or sheath, but at the time 
of erection protrudes from it. 

Sterility, Impotency. — Fecundation does not always follow 
intercourse of the male and female. Impotency in the male and 
sterility in the female frequently occur. 

The causes are qviite varied. A nomial copulation may be 
impossible because of injuries to, and deformities of, the parts 
and tumor growths. Deformed genital organs and obstructions 
of the OS by growths and scar tissue are causes of sterility in 
the female. 

Failure to breed is commonly caused by faulty methods of 
feeding and care. Over-feeding and insufficient exercise may 
result in the body tissues becoming loaded with fat. This may 
cause a temporary sterility, but if persisted in, as is frequently 
the case in show animals, the sterility becomes permanent be- 
cause of the genital glands failing to secrete ova and spermatozoa, 
or the lack of vitality of the male and female elements. Old 
age and debility from disease or poor care may induce loss of 
sexual desire and an absence of, or weakened spermatozoa in, the 
seminal fluid. The refusal of the male to serve certain females 
is sometimes noted. • 

Tuberculosis may affect tlie ovaries and cause pei*manent 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 69 

sterility. In inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb 
and vagina, the secretions are abnormal and may collect in the 
womb and the passages leading to it. These secretions destroy 
the vitality of the spermatozoa, and this condition may be con- 
sidered a common cause of sterility in the larger animals. Many 
vigorous young males are made impotent by excessive copulation. 
The excessive use of the male at any time may result in failure 
to impregnate a large percentage of the females that he serves. 

Barren females do not become pregnant after frequent inter- 
course with the male. Young sterile females may not come in 
heat. Sometimes unnatural periods of heat are manifested, the 
animal coming in heat frequently or remaining in heat for a 
longer period than usual. This sometimes occurs in tuberculo- 
sis of the ovaries. In chronic inflammation of the maternal 
passage there is more or less discharge from the vulva. Both 
sexes may be overly fat or weakened and debilitated by disease. 
Deformity of the generative organs and growths may be found 
on making an examination. Absence of, or lack of vitality of 
the spermatozoa may be determined by microscopic examination 
of the seminal fluid. 

The treatment is largely preventive. It is very important 
that breeding animals be kept in proper physical condition by 
avoiding the feeding of too heavy or too light a ration, and 
allowing them sufiicient exercise. The male is more often 
affected by the latter cause than the female. This is because the 
average stockman does not consider exercise given under the 
right conditions an important factor in maintaining the vigor 
of the male. Young males should not be given excessive inter- 
course with the female. Such practice is certain to seriously 
affect the potency of the animal. The excessive use of the 
stallion can be avoided by practising artificial impregnation of a 
part of the mares that he is called to serve. Sterility caused by 
growths and closure of the os may be corrected by an operation. 

Chronic inflammation of the maternal passages should be 



70 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

treated by irrigating the parts with a one per cent warm water 
solution of lysol, or liquor cresolis compound. The parts should 
be irrigated daily for as long a period as necessary. Fat ani- 
mals should be subjected to a rigid diet and given plenty of 
exercise. Following this treatment a stimulating ration may 
be fed for the purpose of encouraging the sexual desire. In 
weak and debilitated animals, the cause should first be removed 
and a proper ration fed. Cantharides and strychnine are the 
drugs most highly recommended for increasing the sexual 
desire. 

Signs of Pregnancy. — The signs which characterize preg- 
nancy are numerous and varied. For convenience we may 
classify the many signs of pregnancy under two heads, probable 
and positive. Under the head of probable signs, we may group 
the following symptoms of pregnancy : cessation of heat ; 
changes in the animal's disposition ; increase in the volume of 
the abdomen and tendency to put on fat. The positive signs 
are the change in the volume of the udder ; the secretion of 
milk ; the movement of tlie fcetus and presence of the foetus in 
the womb, as determined by rectal examination or by the feel 
of the abdomen. 

The probable sigyis are not reliable, and should be considered 
only in connection with some positive sign. Persons who base 
their opinion of the condition of an animal that is supposed to 
be pregnant on probable signs, are frequently mistaken. It has 
frequently happened that animals whose condition was not at all 
certain have given birth to young, without giving rise to what 
may be termed characteristic probable signs. 

The earliest probable symptom is the cessation of heat. In 
the large pregnant animals, irregnlar heat j^eriods may occur, 
but in the majority of cases we may safely consider the animal 
impregnated if several heat periods are passed over. 

It has been generally observed that the disposition of the 
pregnant animal is changed. They become more quiet and less 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 71 

nervous and irritable. The tendency of pregnant animals to put 
on fat is frequently taken advantage of by the stockman, who 
may allow the boar to run with the herd during the latter period 
of fattening. 

The increase in the volume of the abdomen may be con- 
sidered a positive sign of pregnancy in the small animals, but 
in the mare and cow it can not be depended on. Animals that 
are pregnant for the first time, do not show as great an increase 
in the volume of the abdomen as do animals that have gone 
through successive pregnant periods. The volume of the abdo- 
men may vary greatly in the different individvials, and can not 
be depended on as a positive indication of pregnancy during 
the first two-thirds of the period of pregnancy in the larger 
domestic animals. 

Comparatively early in pregnancy, the presence of a fcetus 
can be determined by feeling the uterus through the wall of the 
rectum. In the small domestic animals the feeling of the abdo- 
men gives the best results. In the cow this method of diag- 
nosis is practised during the latter periods of pregnancy. The 
examiner stands with his back toward the animal's head, and on 
the right side of the cow and the left side of the mare. The 
palm of the hand is applied against the abdominal wall, about 
eight or ten inches in front of the stifle and just below the flank. 
Moderate pressure is used, and if a hard, voluminous mass is 
felt, or if the foetus moves, it is a sure sign that the animal is 
pregnant. It is not uncommon for the foetus to show some 
movement in the morning, or after the animal drinks freely of 
cold water. The increase in the volume of the udder occurs 
at a comparatively early period in animals that are pregnant 
for the first time. The secretion of milk and the dropping of 
the muscles of the quarters indicate that parturition is near. 
The Abderhalden test for determining whether or not an animal 
is pregnant is now practised. 

Hygiene of Pregnant Animals. — Pregnant animals that are 



72 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

confined in a pasture that is free from injurious weeds and not 
too rough or hilly, and where the animals have access to clean 
water and the necessary shelter, seldom suffer from an abnormal 
birth. Here they live under the most favorable conditions for 
taking exercise, securing a suitable diet and avoiding injury. 
It may not be possible in managing breeding animals to provide 
such surroundings at all times, but we should observe every 
possible hygienic precaution, especially if the animal has reached 
the later periods of pregnancy. 

All pregnant animals are inclined to be lazy, but, if permitted, 
will take tlie necessary exercise. Pregnant mares are usually 
worked. Such exercise does no harm, providing the work is 
not hard or of an unusual character. Cows are usually sub- 
ject to more natural conditions than other domestic animals. 

Protecting pregnant animals against injuries resulting from 
crowding, slipping and fighting is an important part of their 
care. Injuries from crowding together in the sleeping quarters 
and about feeding-troughs, or through doors and climbing over 
low partitions are common causes of injury in pregnant sows. 
Crowding together in the stable or yard, or through doorways, 
fighting, and slipping on floors, or icy places sometimes results 
in injury. It is rare, however, for cows to abort from an in- 
jury, but parturition may not be completely free from dis- 
agreeable complications. Under the conditions mentioned re- 
tention of the fetal membranes is common. 

Ewes frequently suffer from too close confinement during 
late winter. Sows are often subject to the most unhygienic 
conditions. This is shown in the heavy death-rate in sows 
and pigs. During the late winter and early spring the condi- 
tions may be such as not to permit of exercise. Stormy, snowy, 
muddy weather is common at this season of the year. Persons 
caring for ewes and sows should see that they take sufficient 
exercise. It may be necessary to drive them about for a short 
time each day. At such times it may be advisable to give them 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 73 

a laxative dose of oil, or give a laxative with the feed. When 
there is any indication of constipation, this should be practised. 

Pregnant animals should be fed carefully. We may feed 
animals that are not in this condition in a careless fashion, but 
if pregnant, over-feeding, the feeding of a fattening ration, or 
spoiled feed, and sudden changes in the feed can not be practised 
with any degree of safety. A bulky ration of dry feed and 
drinking impure, or too little, water may cause constipation, 
acute indigestion and abortion. The ration fed should contain 
the necessary inorganic and organic elements for the building 
up of the body tissues of the foetus. 

At the end of the parturition period, separate quarters should 
be provided. The mare or cow should be given a comfortable 
clean stall away from the other animals. The ewe should be 
provided with a warm room if the weather is cold. It is always 
best to give the sow a separate pen that is dry and clean, and 
away from the other animals. All danger from injury to the 
mother and young should be guarded against. 

Abortion. — The expulsion of the foetus at any time during 
the period of gestation, when it is not sufficiently developed to 
live independently of the mother, is termed abortion. Abortion 
may be either accidental or infectious. Accidental abortion is 
more commonly met with in the mare and sow than the in- 
fectious form. In ruminants the opposite holds true. 

The causes of accidental abortion are faulty methods of 
feeding and care. Injuries, acute indigestion, mouldy, spoiled 
feeds, chilling resulting from exposure and drinking ice-cold 
water, nervousness brought on by fright, or excitement and 
general diseases are the common causes of abortion. 

Infectious abortion is most common in cows. Other domes- 
tic animals that may be affected are the mare, sow and ewe. 

It is caused by a specific germ. The Bacillus abortus of 
Bang is the cause of abortion in cows, but the specific germ that 
produces abortion in other species of animals has not been proven. 



74 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

In this country, Keer, Good, Giltner and others have proven 
that the Uang bacillus of abortion is infectious for other species 
of animals, and outbrealvs of this disease have been said to occur 
among' breeding ewes pastured and fed on infected premises. 
Its infectiousness for the females of other species has never 
been proven in natural outbreaks. 

The disease-producing germs are present in the liody of the 
ftt'tus, the fetal memljranes, the discharge from the maternal 
passages, the fieces and milk tjf aborting animals. The male 
may carry the infection in the sheath, urethra and on the penis. 
The natural avenues of infecttion are the maternal passages and 
digestive tract. 

It is very seldom that abortion is carried from one herd 
to another by means other than through the breeding of ani- 
mals free from abortion to animals affe('t(!d by this disease. 
The jmrchase of a hull or cold from an infected herd and breed- 
ing them to animals that are free from disease, is a common 
method of s])reading the disease. After serving the diseased 
animal, the male niay carry the bacillns of abortion into the 
maternal passages of the next cow he serves. There are numer- 
ous cases on record where the bull was a permanent carrier of 
the Bacillus ahorlu.s and infectcid nearly every animal served. 
I'he distribution of the disease in the herd following the intro- 
duction of a cow, sow, or ewe that has aborted before or after 
lieing purchased, takes place through contact of the other ani- 
mals with the virus that may be present on the floor, or in the 
manure, or by taking the virus into the digestive tract along 
with the feed and drinking water. Experimental evidence indi- 
cates the latter avenue of infection. 

TJie stallion is the most common source of infectious abor- 
tion in mares. An infected stallion may distrilmte the disease 
to a large percentage of the mares that he serves. Tor this 
reason nearly all of the mares in a certain locality may abort. 

In case the infection occurs at the time of service, the abor- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 75 

tion usually takes place during the first half of the period of 
pregnancy. Cows that become pregnant without recovering 
from the inflammation of the lining membrane of the genital 
tract, may abort at a very early period. McFadyean and Stock- 
man from the artificially inoculated cases of infectious abortion 
in cows, showed that the period of incubation averaged 120 days. 

The symptoms of accidental abortion are extremely variable. 
Animals that abort during the early periods of pregnancy may 
show so little disturlmnce, that the animal can be treated as if 
nothing had happened. During the latter half of pregnancy, 
and especially when the accident is caused by an injury, the 
symptoms are more serious. Loss of appetite, dulness, restless- 
ness, abdominal pain and hemorrhage are the symptoms com- 
monly noted. If the foetus is dead, it may be necessary to 
assist the animal in expelling it. In the latter case, death of the 
mother may occur. 

A slight falling of the flanks, swelling of the lips of the 
vulva and a retention of the fetal membranes, or discharge from 
the vulva may be the only symptoms noted at the time abortion 
occurs. 

The symptoms of infectious ahortion vary in the different 
periods of pregnancy. At an early period, the foetus may be 
passed with so little evidence of labor that the animal pays 
little attention to it. The recurrence of heat may be the first 
intimation of the abortion. All cases of abortion are followed by 
more or less discharge from the vulva. This is especially true 
if the fetal membranes are retained. In such cases, the dis- 
charge has a very disagreeable odor. In most cases the foetus 
is dead. When bom alive, it is weak and puny, and usually 
dies or is destroyed within a few days. When the attendant 
fails to give the animal the necessary attention, or is careless 
in his manipulation of the parts, inflammation of the womb, 
caused by the decomposition of the retained membranes, or the 
introduction of irritating germs on the ropes, instruments and 



76 NON-SPECIFIC OH GENERAL DLSEARES 

hands, may occur. Death commonly follows this complication. 

It is very important that the infectious form be diagnosed 
early in the outl)reak. For all practical purposes we are justi- 
fied iji diai^iiosiui^' iuffKitious ahotiioii, if several animals in the 
herd aboj-t, especially if it follows the introduction of new ani- 
mals. Methods of scrum diaii,'nosis, the agglutination and com- 
plement-fixation tests, are now used in the diagnosis of this 
disease. 

The preventive treatment of the accidental form consists in 
avoiding (conditions tliat may result in this accident. Prcignant 
animals slioukl not be exposed to injuries from other animals 
or from the surroundings. Animals which show a predisposition 
to abort should not be bred. We should see that all animals re- 
ceive the necessary exercise and a proper ration. 

If tlic animal indicatxcs by her actions that abortion may take 
place, we should give h(!r comfortal)Ie, ([uiet quarters. Tt is 
very ne(;essary to keep her ([uiet, and if restless, moi'phine may 
be given. A very light diet should be fed and constipation pre- 
vented by administeri))g a laxative. Ilie necessary attention 
shouhl be given in case abortion occurs. 

The enfoi'cement of preventive or f/uar(intine measures is 
very imj)ortant in tb(i control of infectious abortion. Tliis is 
especially true of breeding herds and dairy cows. J>reeders 
do not recognize the imj)ortance of keeping their herds clean 
or free from disease. It is a well-known fact among stockmen 
that abortion and otlicr infectious diseases have been frecpiently 
introduced into the herd tlirough the purchase of one or more 
brecHling animals. Hecause of the prevalence of infectious abor- 
tion among cows, it is advisable to subject newly purchased 
breeding animals, or a cow that has been bred outside of the 
herd, to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix 
with the herd. 'Ilie breeding of cows from neighboring herds to 
th(; herd bull is not a safe practice. In communities where there 
are outbreaks of this disease, animals that abort, or show indi- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATJVPJ OltGAXS 77 

cations of aborting, should Le quarantirjod for a period of from 
two to three months. The separatior] from the herd should he so 
complete as to eliminate any danger of carrying the disease to 
the healthy animals on the clothing and farm tools. If this 
method of control were practised at the xary heginning of the 
outbreaks, the disease couM be checkefl in tjje large majority of 
herds. 

The ff/'tus and mcnjLrancH should he destroyed by burning. 
In case the animal does not pass the fetal membranes, they 
should he completely removed. In the cow, it is advisable t/j 
wait twenty-four hours before doing this. The animal's stall 
should he thoronglily f)e;ined and disinfected. It is very ad- 
visable to give the entire stable a thorough disinfecting. For 
this purpose a three or four per cent water solution of liquor 
cresolis compound may be used. It is advisable to apply it- 
with a spray pumjK 1 }je floor and feed troughs should he 
sprinkled daily with the disinfectant. All manure should he 
removed to a place where the animals can not come in contact 
with it. It is not advisable to confine the cows to a small yard. 
The more range they have the easier it is to control the disease. 

Irulividual treoArnent is very necessary. In infectious abor- 
tion the mucous lining of the womb and the passages leading 
to it become inflamed. This .should be treated by irrigating the 
parts with a warm water solution of a disinfectant that is non- 
irritating. This treatment should be repeated daily for a period 
of from two to four weeks. We must be very careful not to 
irritate the parts. A one-half per cent water solution of liquor 
cresolis compound may be used. 

Animals that abort should not be bred until they have com- 
pletely recovered. Small animals that have no .special value as 
breeding animals .should be marketed. Cows and mares should 
not be bred for a period of at least three months. 

Infected males should not be used for service. The male 



78 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

should receive the necessary attention in tlie way of irrigating 
the sheath before and after each service. 

Physiology of Parturition. — Parturition or birth, when 
occurring in the mare, is designated as foaling; in the cow, 
calving; in the sheep, lambing; and in the sow, farrowing. A 
normal or natural birth occurs when no complications are present 
and the mother needs no assistance. When the act is compli- 
cated and prolonged, it is tenned abnormal l)irth. The length 
of time required for different individuals of the same species 
to give birth to their young varies widely. It may require 
but a few minutes, or be prolonged for a day or more. The 
cause of this variation in the length of time required for differ- 
ent animals to bring forth their young, can be better understood 
if we study the anatomy of the parts and their functions. 

Throughout the pregnant period the expulsion of the foetus 
is being prepared for. As the foetus develops there is a corre- 
sponding development of the muscular wall of the womb. The 
last period of pregnancy is characterized by the relaxation of the 
muscles and ligaments that form the pelvic walls, and a relaxa- 
tion and dilation of the maternal passages. In addition, de- 
generative changes occur in the structures that attach the foetus 
to the womb, the normal structures being gradually destroyed 
by a fatty degeneration. This results in a separation between the 
fetal and maternal placenta. The contents of the womb begin 
to affect the organ in the same manner as a foreign body, irritat- 
ing the nerve endings and producing contractions of the muscles. 
These contractions of the muscles help greatly in breaking down 
the attachments until finally the labor pains begin in earnest, 
and the foetus is gradually forced out of the womb, through the 
dilated os and into the vagina and vulva. 

A normal birth is possible, only when the expelling power 
of the womb is able to overcome the resistance offered by the 
foetus and its membranes, the pelvic walls and the vagina and 
vulva. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 



79 



The relative size of the foetus to the inlet of the pelvic 
cavity and its position are the most important factors for the 
veterinarian and stockman to consider (Fig. 18). On leaving 
the womb, the foetus passes into the vagina and vulva. This 
portion of the maternal passages is situated in the pelvic cavity 
which continues the abdominal cavity posteriorly. The pelvic 




Fig. 18." — Photograph of model of uterus of cow containing a foetus: (B) foetus; 
(E) umbilical cord; (H) placenta; (A, A) horn containing foetus; and (C) opposite horn. 
Note the difference in the development of the two horns. 

walls are formed by bones and ligaments that are covered by 
heavy muscles. As previously mentioned, the ligaments and 
muscles relax toward the end of pregnancy in order to prepare 
the way for the passage of the foetus. Before entering the pelvis 
it is necessary for the foetus to be forced through the inlet to this 
cavity. This is the most difficult part of the birth, as the bones 



so 



N(>N JWI'ICIIK ' <>l{ CI'iNI'lKAl, I HMI'IAMI'IM 



llllll, lolin llic I lllllicw nil. (il llic |icl\i;l rii|ii|(lrlcl \ (•lH'liiMc llld 
(Ullnilirc III il. Ir IM iiiilv III lli<^ ViHIli;-; liiollici- lli;il llic |icl\i(' 
hoiKni ,",i\<' \\ii\ mIivIiIIn I(> (In- |iltiMMlirc (tii lliciii li\ llic Im'Iiim. 
\\ ciiii lie I'CMltlils iiiidci ;i|ii(i(|, ||i:il when llic Ndiiiiy i.i liii'j'C in 
|ii'i>|i(ii'l mil III llic il iniiiclci' III llic |icl\ic iiild, il i;i (jiHiciill, 
Idi' t{ III |i!i IM I II rmivli. I III:: ucciiim wIicii iiii i| licni liclmij" i ii".;' 
Ill II Ml 1 1 ill I lirccil, lire I iii|ircv iimIciI Ii\ !I ,'iire lich iii;> i iiv; In :i lill'ji'O 
Inccil III :i II I iii:i l:i II iii.'iv hImo iieciir il llic iiinllicr i:; led lint 
I til leiii ii;> :i i'mIiuii :iiiiI iml | leriii 1 1 1 ci I mm llieiciil cscreiMc. 

Tlie |iMil III llie III lir. lluil ih'cmciiIm iImcII Inr llic ciil.i-iiiiec 
mill llic |icl\ le cii\il\' nixl iIm |iiiMiliiiii iii'c ul llic frciilcul nil 
|iiirl!iiii'e Ml ." I \ III," lurlli In llic \ii|iti<''. I'!illici- cm! nl ilic IicIiim, 
(tr i|m iiikIiIIc |Miflinii iii;i\ lie |treM('lileiI Inr eiilniiice. llic 
(lilliTli>r Mill! jiosliTiiT jiriSiiiliil loiis \\\:\\ lie iiindillcd li\ llic 
|iiiMilinii lli!il llie lieliiM mmmiiiiicm. I I iiiiiv lie in ii |iiiMi|.inn lliiil; 
|d;iceM llie linek i^i \eilelii;e n|i|»nMllc llie ii|i|iei- |iiiiliii|i nl iJic 
inlel., n|- In llie llnnr nr miiIcm nl llii' |iel\ie e:i\il\. TliCMc jiiimi 
I iiMiM iiiMN lie Hindi lied \\\ llie |iiimi I inn nl niic nr Iml li I nil I is, nr 1 1 in 
lieiid iiiid iiecL licin;-; dirccled Inrw ;i iiIm in!;le;id nl li;iek \V!i rds. 
in llie I i;nisr<ist' j>rt's<'iiliil itnis, llie lniek, nr llie led ;ind ;ilii|n 
men nl llie liehiM iii.'iv |treseiil I lieni>icl\CM Inr cnlr;iiiec In IIk^ 
|iel\ ic e:i\il\. I'licsc |»re;ienl ;i I inns iii!i\ mIihw lliree |iiiHiliniis 
CMili. llic lie;iil iii;i\ lu' ii|i|inMile llic ii|i|icr WMils nl llic iiilel, 
llic luliis nssnnnii;'; ;i dny, sil I in.", |inMil inii, i>i il ni:i\ lie nil eil her 
side. 

In nrder In tiNcrennic llie Iriclinn lielwcen llie lieliei ;inil llic 
\\:ill n! llie iiinleriiMl |>iKSS!i!';es, lliesc |i;irls m re lnlirie:il.ed li\ llie 
lliiiiis llinl. et<e;i|>c rrniii llie " wiilcr 1i:i'',m." I I lurlli is |irnliiii;--ed 
niul the pussaj'jeM lieennic iIin, liirlli i^; reLirdcd. llie liiiir nlTcrs 
snnu* resisl;iiiei> in -i |uislerinr |)r(\'^cnl;il inii. \ nun,"; inures llnil 
hcciMiie hvslericiil haxe ahiinrinal lahor pains lliak seiMii In linld 
t.hc lielns in |lu> \\(>nil> inslead nl ("xpclliiii;' il. 

C.Mf o\ (lu- IVlolhei .uul Ynuii^. — Allhon-'h hirlli is rcner 
all\' eas\ in lht> dillerenl dnmeslie animals, il ina\' he dillieiill. 



l)lHiAHf;H Oi- lUL Oh.'.iJlA'JiVh hi'JiANH HI 

Siftti cjnn\)\\(:iiU'A, mi<i it iH of the '//(-M/'M (AortomU'. Unfioii^rwAi 
that 'r>\>('/'A'A\ hti/'jd'tou \k', ^ivcji i\i(i motiitif at tUh t'lum. It m 
very mn'Amary for \uiv to \xi hm it mnHnpA in a ni/dW. If run- 
nitii£, in a jmaturft or lot, tlui nac-jdnmry «heltor from ni/mm, mid 
or tixtramo hoat Hhonld Sm ixovidfA, Othar farm an'imaln, nwh 
an ho'f^H, h(>rmn nud cattJc, nhoiiUl not, Ut allow^/J fo rjjr* in tb/; 
«a,rrj<^; lot or yaniMra. 

Whcjt ffurUmtUm <'/>mm<m('^^6, the. mother -ihouUl Uj kopfc 
uftd(;r clo)^; oltmrvation, li fii/j lafxyr );< dJrtieuJt and imAon'/cA, 
wft rimy tii<?n nxammH ikui pari^ and df^Mrmma iim ftanm of tlticj 
abnormal birth. Unn(ii;mmvy nutAAlin^ in mft advinabla, Iki- 
foro att/'jnpt'ifi{£ thh fixumUtatiou, the handa should U* <-]fiax\oA 
and dmoi'cj-^M, and the Uw^cr tmln nUoHmtA if uc/'j^nary. 
The different f/mditiom to l^>e determined am the nature of tha 
lalxtr [tainny the c/mdition oi the, matffruaS \yAma^(%, and the 
fifmition and presentation of the fodvm. In tf/e smaller animals 
t\m exam/ nation rnay (x^ diffieult In prolong/A lalf^/r tUo, paetn 
rn&y \>e found dry and t}m lahor pain» violent and irre^ilar, or 
weak. 7'he fo'tu» may Ixj jamm^'/I tightly int/t the f^jlvie inlet, 
it may U; weJJ forward in the womh, the hea/l and fore or hind 
lirnJ^j* rriay F>^* dirc/^/td bnckwarda, or one or more oi tlie«e part^ 
may \>e direcii/'A forward in nwh a position an to prevent tJi^ 
entranf'/i of the fodun iut/f the pel vie inlet Sometimes the 
f//d:iJ» hi Jtt a trannverm it(ni>itufn. The parts that i/remnt them- 
mlven at the x>elvie inlet should be earefully examined and their 
position d'ii/irminoA. The neeessary assistan/'e should tiien he 
given. Any delay in assisting in the hirth may r<i»fult in thi? 
death of the young or mother, or U>th, On the other hand, 
unintTjlligent miAdlinfi; may aggravate th/j ease and render treat" 
ment diffieult or im\>(>mi\)l(u There in no line of vtit/mnary 
work tliat r^j^julres the attention of a akilUA vt^/'yirtarian more 
tiiuan amifftin^ an irregular or almomm] hirth. 

The att/indant nmni guard against inf^i^rtlng the parts with 
irritiiting gerrr/>;, or irritating and injuring them in any way. 
6 



82 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The hands, instriTments, and cords must be freed from germs 
by washing with a disinfectant, or sterilization with heat. The 
quarters nmst be clean in order to prevent contamination of the 
instrnments and clothing of the attendant by filth. Extreme 
force is injurious. For illustration, we may take a case of 
difficult birth caused by an unusually large foetus. Both pres- 
entation and position are normal, the forefeet and head having 
entered the pelvic cavity, but the shoulders and chest are jammed 
tightly in the inlet, and the progress of the fn^tus along the 
maternal passages is retarded. By using sufficient force, we 
may succeed in delivering the young, but by pulling on one limb 
until the shoulder has entered the pelvis, and repeating this 
with the opposite limb we are able to deliver the young without 
exposing the mother to injury. It may be necessary to change 
an abnormal presentation, or position, to a normal })resentation, 
or as nearly normal as possible. This should be done before 
any attempt is made to remove the f(ctus. 

Following birth the mother should not be unnecessarily dis- 
turbed. The quarters should be clean, well bedded and venti- 
lated, but free from draughts. If the parturition has been 
normal, a small (puuitity of easily digested feed may be fed. 
If weak and feverish, feed should be withheld for at least twelve 
hours. The mare should l:»e rested for a few weeks. The young 
needs no special attention if it is strong and vigorous, but if 
weak, it may be necessary to support it while nursing, or milk 
the mother and feed it 1)y hand. If the mother is nervous and 
irritable, it may be necessary to remove the young temporarily 
to a place where she can hear and see it, until a time when she 
can be induced to care for it. The principal attention required 
for young pigs is protection against being crushed by the mother. 
The cutting oif and ligation of the umbilical cord at a point a 
few inches from the abdomen, and applying tincture of iodine 
or any reliable disinfectant is very advisable in the colt and calf. 

Retention of the Fetal Membranes. — The foetus in envel- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 83 

oped by several layers of membranes. The external envelope, the 
chorion, is exactly adapted to the uterus. The innermost enve- 
lope, the amnion, encloses the foetus. Covering the external 
face of the amnion and lining tho inner face of the chorion is 
a double membrane, the allantois. The envelopes mentioned 
are not the only protection that the fa'tus has against injury. 
Jt is enveloped in fluids as well. Immediately surrounding it is 




Fig. 19. — Placenta of cow. 

the liquor amnii, and within the allantois is the allantoic fluid. 
The placenta is a highly vascular structure spread out or 
scattered over the surface of the chorion and the mucous mem- 
brane of the uterus, that attaches the foetus and its envelopes to 
the womb (Fig. 19). It is by means of this vascular apparatus 
that the ffXitus is furnished with nourishment. The fetal and 
maternal placentas are made up of vascular villi and depres- 
sions that are separated only by the thin walls of capillaries. 



84 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

and a layer of epithelial cells. This permits a change of 
material between the fetal and maternal circulation. The 
arrangement of the placenta differs in the different species. In 
the mare and sow, the villi are diffused. In ruminants, the 
villi are grouped at certain points. These vascular masses are 
termed cotyledons. The maternal cotyledons or '' buttons " 
form appendages or thickened points that become greatly en- 
larged in the pregnant animal. 

Toward the end of the pregnant period, the attachments 
between the fetal and maternal placentuhc undergo a fatty 
degeneration and finally separate. This results in contractions 
of the muscular wall of the uterus, and the expulsion of the fcrtus 
and its envelopes. In the mare, it is not uncommon for the colt 
to be born with the covering intact. This does not occur in the 
cow. Usually the envelopes are not expelled until a short time 
after birth in all animals, and it is not uncommon for them to 
bo retained. This complication is most commonly met with in 
the cow. 

In the mare the retention of the fetal envelopes or " after- 
birth " is commonly due to the nuiscles of the womb not con- 
tracting properly following birth. Abortion, especially the 
infectious form, is commonly complicated by a retention of the 
fetal membranes. Any condition that may produce an in- 
flammation of the lining membrane of the womb may result in 
retention of the '' after-birth." Injuries to the uterus resulting 
from the animal slipping, fighting and becoming crowded are, 
no doul)t, common causes of failure to "' clean " in cows. 

Tlie symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is 
seldom made. A portion of the membranes is usually seen 
hanging from the vulva, and the tail and hind parts may be 
more or less soiled. The latter symptom is especially promi- 
nent if the membranes have been retained for several days, and 
decomposition has begun. In such case, the discharge from the 
vulva is dark ;n color, contains small pieces of the decomposed 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 85 

membrane and has a Teiy disagreeable odor. In the mare, acute 
inilam-mation of the womb may result if the removal of the 
" after-birth " is neglected. Loss of appetite, abnoi-mal body 
temperature, weakness aud diarrhoea may follow. Such cases 
usually teiTuinate in death. Eetention of the fetal membranes is 
a very common cause of leucorrhoea. 

The tredtment consists in removing the fetal envelopes be- 
fore there is any opportunity for them to undergo decomposi- 
tion. In the mare, this should be practised within a few hours 
after birth has occurred, and in other animals, from one to 
forty-eight hours. In waiin stables and during the warm 
weather, treatment should not be postponed later than twenty- 
four hours. The only successful method of treatment is to 
introduce the hand and arm into the utenis. and break down the 
attachments with the fingers. In the larger animals, the use 
of the arm must not be interfered with by clothing. Every 
possible precaution should be taken to prevent infection of the 
genital organs with irritating germs. It is advisable in most 
cases to flush out the womb with a one per cent water solution 
of liquor cresolis compound after the removal of the fetal 
envelopes. 

Leucorrhoea. — This is a chronic inflammation of the mucous 
membrane lining the genital tract, that is associated with more 
or less of a discharge from the vulva. It is common in animals 
that abort, or retain the '' after-birth." 

The discharge may be white, sticky, albuminous, and with- 
out odor, or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The 
tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. In chronic in- 
flammation of the womb the discharge is intermittent. In mild 
cases the health of the animal is in no way impaired. Sterility 
is common. Loss of appetite and unthriftiness occur in severe 
cases. 

Treatment. — Zldild cases readily yield to treatment. This 
consists in irrigating the maternal passages with a one-half per 



86 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

cent warm water solution of liquor cresolis compound. This 
treatment should be repeated daily and continued for as long 
a time as necessary. 

Mammitis. — Inflammation of the mammary gland or udder 
is more ct)mmou in the cow than in any of the other domestic 
animals. In all animals it is most frequently met with during 
the first few weeks after birth. 

A predisposing cause in the development of mammitis is a 
high development of the mammary glands. The following 
direct causes may be mentioned : Incomplete milking, or milk- 
ing at irregular intervals ; injury to the udder by stepping on the 
teat ; blows from the horns and pressure caused by lying on a 
rough, uneven surface ; chilling of the udder by draughts and 
lying on frozen ground ; and infection of the glandular tissue 
by irritating germs. The latter cause produces the most serious, 
and, sometimes, a very extensive inflammation. This form of 
inflammation may spread from one cow to another, causing the 
milk to be unfit for food, and bringing about the loss of one or 
more quarters of the udder. 

Tlie symptoms occurring in the ditferent forms of mammitis 
difl^er. The inflammation may involve one or more of the glands, 
and may affect either the glandular or the connective tissue. 
In some cases the gland may aj^pear congested for a few days 
before the inflammatory changes occur. The part becomes hot, 
swollen, tender and reddened. It may feel doughy or hard. If 
the connective tissue is involved (interstitial form), there is apt 
to be a high body temperature, the udder may bo much larger 
than normal, is tender and pits on pressure. Loss of appetite 
usually accompanies tliis form of mammitis. Very little or no 
milk is secreted. Sometimes, the milk is greatly changed in 
appearance, is foul smelling and contains pus. In congestion of 
the udder and mpture of the capillary vessels, the milk may 
contain blood. 

Mild inflammation of the udder responds readily to treat- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 87 

ment. The interstitial form may terminate in abscesses and 
gangrene. The replacement of the glandular tissue by fibrous 
tissue in one or more quarters is not uncommon. Death seldom 
occurs. 

The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions 
that may favor or cause an inflammation of the gland. Ani- 
mals that have highly developed mammary glands should be fed 
a light diet just before and following parturition. Following 
jDarturition, a dose of Epsom or Glauber's salts may be given. 
If tlie young does not take all the milk, the udder should be 
milked out as clean as possible. Massaging the udder by knead- 
ing or stroking may be practised. 

The following treatment is recommended : The application 
of a thick coating of antiphlogistin once or twice daily is a 
useful remedy. If the udder becomes badly swollen, it should 
be supported with a bandage. Extensive inflammation may be 
treated by the application of cold in the form of packs of cracked 
ice. Irrigating the gland with a four per cent water solution 
of boric acid is an important treatment for certain forms of 
mammitis. Abscess formation or suppuration should be 
promptly treated by opening and treating the abscesses. If 
gangreue occurs, it may be necessary to remove a part, or the 
whole of the udder. 

The giving of milk discolored with blood may be treated by 
applying camphorated ointment twice daily. 

Sore and Warty Teats. — Irritation to the teats by filth, cold, 
moisture and injuries cause the skin to become inflamed, sore 
and scabby. 

Preventive treatment is the most satisfactory. Sore teats 
may be treated by applying the following ointment after each 
milking : vaseline ten parts and oxide of zinc one part. Pendu- 
lous warts may be clipped ofi^ with a sharp pair of scissors. 
Castor oil applied to the wart daily by rubbing may be used 
for the removal of flat warts. 



88 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

" Milk-fever " or Post-partum Paralysis. — This is a disease 
peculiar to cows, esj^ecially heavy milkers that are in good 
condition. It most commonly occurs after the third, fourth and 
fifth calving. The disease usually appears within the first two 
or three days after calving, but it has been known to occur 
before, and as late as several weeks after calving. The cause 
is not certainly known. The Schmidt theory is that certain 
toxins are fonned in the udder, owing to the over activity of the 
cells of the <2:landular tissue. 




Fig. 20. — A case of milk-fever. 

The symptoms are characteristic of the disease. At the 
very beginning of the attack the cow stops eating and ruminat- 
ing, becomes uneasy, switches the tail, stamps the feet, trembles, 
staggers when forced to walk and finally falls and is unable to 
get up. At first she may lie in a natural position ; later, as the 
paralytic symptoms become more pronounced, the head is laid 
against the side of the body and the animal seems to be in a deep 
sleep (Fig. 20). In the more severe form the cow lies on her 
side, consciousness is lost and the paralysis of the muscles is 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 



89 



marked. The different body functions are interfered with; 
the urine is retained, bloating occurs, respirations are slow, 
pulse weak and temperature subnormal or normal. 

Preventive treatment, such as feeding a spare diet during 
the latter period of pregnancy, is not always advisable. Heavy 
milkers should be given one-half pound of Glauber's salts a day 
or two before calving, and the dose repeated when the cow be- 
comes fresh. Cows affected with milk-fever seldom die if 
treated promptly. 

The treatmerit consists in empty- 
ing the udder by milking and 
injecting air or oxygen gas into 
the gland until it is completely 
distended (Fig. 21). The milk- 
fever apparatus should be clean, 
and the air injected filtered. Be- 
fore introducing the milking tube 
into the milk duct, the udder should 
first be washed with a disinfectant, 
and a clean towel laid on the floor 
for the gland to rest on. After 
injecting the quarter, strips of 
muslin or tape should be 
around the ends of the teats to pre- 
vent the escape of the air. If the cow does not show indications 
of recovery in from four to five hours, the treatment should be 
repeated. 

It is very necessary to give the cow a comfortable stall and 
protect her from any kind of exposure. No bulky drenches 
should be administered. If she lies stretched out, the fore parts 
should be raised by packing straw under her. This is necessary 
in order to prevent pneumonia, caused by regurgitated feed 
entering the air passages and lungs. It is very advisable to 
give her the following mixture for a few days after the attack : 




Fig. 21. — Milk-fever apparatus: 
tied (A) pump; (B) filter; (C) rubber tub- 
ing; and (D) millc tube. 



90 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

tincture of nux vomica two ounces, and alcohol six ounces. One 
ounce of this mixture may be given four times daily in a little 
water. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the generative organs of the female. 

2. Name the generative organs of the male. 

3. Give the causes of sterility or impotency in the male and female. 

4. Give the treatment of impotency in the male and. female. 

5. Describe the probable signs of pregnancy; positive signs of pregnancy. 

6. Describe the hygienic care of the pregnant female in a general way. 

7. Name the difi'erent forms of abortion ; give the causes. 

8. Describe the preventive treatment of infectious abortion. 

9. Give a general discussion of the physiology of parturition, 

10. What are the common causes of difficult birth? 

11. What parts of the fuetus may present themselves at the inlet of the 

pelvic cavity? What are the different positions of the ffftus? 

12. What attention should be given the motlier at the time of parturition? 

13. Wliat attention sliould be given the young immediately after birth? 

14. Give the causes of retention of tlie fetal membranes; state the method 

of removing them. 

15. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation of the udder. 
10. Give the cause of milk-fever; give the treatment. 



CHAPTER VIII 
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 

General Discussion. — The respiratory apparatus may be 
divided into two groups of organs, anterior and posterior. The 
anterior group, the nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx and 
trachea, is situated in the region of the head and neck. The 
posterior group, the bronchial tubes and lungs, is situated in 
the chest or thoracic cavity. 

The nostrils are the anterior openings of the air passages. 
The nasal cavities are situated in the anterior region of the 
head, and extend the entire length of the face. Each cavity 
is divided into three long, narrow passages by the two pairs of 
turbinated bones. The lining membrane is the nasal mucous 
membrane, the lower two-thirds or respiratory portion differing 
from the upper one-third, in that the latter possesses the nerve 
endings of the olfactory nerve and is the seat of smell. The 
five pairs of head sinuses communicate with the nasal cavities. 
Posteriorly and near the superior extremity of the nasal passages, 
are two large openings, the guttural, that open into the pharyn- 
geal cavity. 

The pharynx is a somewhat funnel-shaped cavity. The 
walls are thin and formed by muscles and mucous membrane. 
This is the cross-road between the digestive and respiratory 
passages. In the posterior portion of the cavity there are two 
openings. The inferior opening leads to the larynx and the 
superior one to the a?sophagus. All feed on its way to the 
stomach must pass over the opening into the larynx. It is 
impossible, however, for the feed to enter this opening, unless 
accidentally when the animal coughs. The cartilage closing this 
opening is pressed shut by the base of the tongue when the bolus 
of feed is passed back and into the oesophageal opening. 

91 



92 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The larynx may be compared to a box open at both ends. 
The several cartilages that form it are united by ligaments. It 
is lined by a nmcous membrane. The posterior extremity is 
united to the first cartilaginous ring of the trachea. The 
anterior opening is closed by the epiglottis. Just within is a 
V-shaped opening that is limited laterally by the folds of the 
laryngeal mucous membrane, the vocal chords. 

The tracJiea is a cylindrical tube originating at the posterior 
extremity of the larynx, and terminating within the chest cavity 
at a point just above the heart in the right and left bronchial 
tubes. It is formed by a series of cartilaginous rings joined 
together at their borders by ligaments and lined by a mucous 
membrane. 

The bronchial tubes resemble the trachea in structure. They 
enter the lungs a short distance from their origin, where they 
subdivide into branches and sub-branches, gradually decreasing 
in calibre and losing the cartilaginous rings, ligaments and 
muscular layer until only the thin mucous membrane is left. 
They become capillary in diameter, and finally open into the 
infundibula of the air cells of the lungs. 

The lungs take up all of the space in the thoracic cavity not 
occupied by the heart, blood-vessels and oesophagus. This cavity 
resembles a cone in shape tliat is cut obliquely downwards and 
forward at its base. The base is formed by the diaphragm which 
is pushed forward at its middle. It is lined by the pleura, a 
serous membrane, that is inflected from the wall over the differ- 
ent organs within the cavity. The median folds of tlie pleura 
divide the cavity into right and left portions, A second method 
of describing the arrangement of the pleura is to state that it 
forms two sacks, right and left, that enclose the lungs. The 
lungs are the essential organs of respiration. The tissue that 
forms them is light, will float in water, is elastic and somewhat 
rose-colored. Each lung is divided into lobes, and each lobe into 
a great numl)er of lobules by the supporting connective tissue. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 93 

The lobule is the smallest division of the lung and is formed 
by capillary bronchial tubes, air cells and blood-vessels. It is 
here that the external respiration or the exchange of gases be- 
tween the capillaries and the air cells occurs. 

Ventilation. — It is agreed by all persons who have investi- 
gated the subject, that unventilated stable air is injurious to 
animals. At one time it was believed that the injurious effects 
resulting from the breathing of air charged with gases and 
moisture from the expired air and the animal's surroundings, 
were due to a deficiency in oxygen. It is now believed that the 
ill-effects are mainly due to the stagnation of air, the humid 
atmosphere, and the irritating gases emanating from the body 
excretions. 

The common impurities found in stable air are carbonic and 
ammonia gas, moisture charged with injurious matter and dust 
from the floor and bodies of the animals. As a rule, the more 
crowded and filthy the stable, the more impurities there are in 
the air. If any of the animals are affected with an infectious 
disease, such as tuberculosis or glanders, the moisture and dust 
may act as carriers of the disease-producing germs. Infectious 
diseases spread rapidly in crowded, poorly ventilated stables. 
The two factors responsible for this rapid spread of disease are 
the lowered vitality of the animal, due to breathing the vitiated 
air, and the greater opportunity for infection, because of the 
comparatively large number of bacteria present in the air. 

The purpose of stable ventilation is to replace the stable 
air with purer air. The frequency with which the air in the 
stable should be changed depends on the cubic feet of air space 
provided for each animal, and the sanitary conditions present. 
The principal factor in stable ventilation is the force of the 
wind. In cold weather it is very difiicult to properly ventilate 
a crowded stable without too much loss of animal heat and 
creating draughts. 

For practical purposes, the need of ventilation in a stable 



94 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



can be determined by the odor of the air, tlie amount of moisture 
jjresent and the temperature. It is impossible to keep the air 
within the stable as pure as the atmosphere outside. 

All dangers from injury by breathing impure air, or by 
draughts can be eliminated by proper stable construction, atten- 
tion to the ventilation and keeping the quarters clean. 

Catarrh (Cold in the Head). — Catarrh is an inflammation 




Fig. 22. — A case of catarrhal cold. 

of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities that usually 
extends to the membrane lining of the sinuses of the head. It 
may be acute or chronic. The inflammation very often extends 
to the pharynx and larynx. Cold in the head is more common 
in the horse than in any of the other animals (Fig. 22). 

The most common causes of " colds " are standing or lying 
in a draught, becoming wet, and exposure to the cold. " Colds " 
are common during cold, changeable weather. Horses that are 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 95 

accustomed to warm stables, are very apt to take " cold " if 
changed to a cold stable and not protected with a blanket. Most 
animals are not affected by the cold weather if given dry quarters 
and a dry bed. Irritation to the mucous membrane by dust, 
gases and germs is a common cause. Influenza and colt dis- 
temper are characterized by an inflammation of the respiratory 
mucous membranes. In the horse, chronic catarrh is commonly 
caused by diseased teeth, and injuries to the wall of the maxillary 
sinus. In sheep, the larva3 of the bot-fly may cause catarrh. 

The early symptoms usually pass unnoticed by the attendant. 
The lining membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red. 
During this stage sneezing is common. In a few days a dis- 
charge appears. This is watery at first, but may become 
catarrhal, heavy, mucous-like and turbid. In severe cases it 
resembles pus. The lining membrane of the eyelids appears red 
and tears may flow from the eye. Sometimes the animal acts 
dull and feverish, but this symptom does not last longer than 
one or two days unless complicated by sore throat. 

Inflammation of the throat is a common complication of 
" colds." It is .characterized by diflficulty in swallowing and 
partial, or complete loss of appetite. Drinking or exercising 
causes the animal to cough. If the larynx as well as the pharynx 
is inflamed, distressed and noisy breathing may occur. Pressure 
over the region of the throat causes the animal pain. 

Common " cold " terminates favorably within a week. 
Chronic catarrh may persist until the cause is removed and the 
necessary local treatment applied. Inflammation of the pharynx 
and larynx may persist for several weeks unless properly treated. 
Abscesses may fonn in the region of the throat. Horses fre- 
quently become thick winded as a result of severe attacks of 
sore throat. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. " Colds " 
and sore throat can be largely prevented by good care, exercise 
and properly ventilated stables. Mild cases require a light diet. 



«H) N(,)N-siM';cii'ic on general diseases 

c'i)mt'oi't;ihl(' (lunvUMis niul ;i dry hcd. \\\o\\'n\^ the animal to 
inlinic slcaiii tliriH^ or tour tiinos dailv is usolul in roliovin*;' 
tlio inllanunnlion. I^asilv (iiiic^slcd I'cihIs, and in (*asi> llio animal 
has (lillicnilv m swallowing-, i^oi't \ccds and gvucMs, slumld bo 
uivon. riio (hroat mav bo ko]it oovorod with a lavor id" an(i- 
phloiiisl in and banihiiiod. Ci Ivci^hoiMin may bo i^ivon in from 
((^asju^onful lo tablosjioont'nl dosivs, do|HMulinii,' on tlu> si/.o of 
iht* animal. (diKu'ato ol potassium may he i2,i\on in tlu> drink- 
iuL!,' waliM'. 

1 1" {he animal booonu^s run down in lU^sh, as somotimos ot'ours 
in I'hronii' calarrh, bitlt'r timics slumKl bo i^iviMi. In tho lattcn* 
disoaso, if. is sonuMinu>s nocossary {o trojihini^ and wash out tho 
sinus ov sinus(>s alliv'tod with an antisoj>tio solutitui. It may be 
noo(>ssai'y t(> rtHitinuo this [rtMtmont lov sowmmI wO(^ks. 

Bronchitis. — Jntlnmmation ol" tho bromdiial tubos may be 
oithor aout(> oi chronio. .Viaiti^ bronchitis is t>s}HH'ially innnnum 
in the horso, whiK' tho oliriuiio foi'ui is more idtiMi mot with in 
tlu> smalltM- animals, (>s|n\'ially hoiis. This disoaso is most 
oomnuMi anunii!, lun-sos durinu' tho ohauiioable seasons ol' the 
years. It is ciiusrif by warm, oloso stables ov stalls, and irritatini;: 
ii'ases (Muanatinu triMu tlu^ llotu-, ov manure in tho stall. In 
UiMioral, tho oansos are about tlu^ same as in co\d in the hoail. 
In younj;- animals anil hous. the inhalation of dust, and bronohial 
and Inuij,' worms oommonly oause it. N'erminous broueliitis 
usually booomes ohronio. 

In tlic acuic form ol" tho disoaso the sipii p(o))is oome on very 
quiokly, the fever is lii^h and the pulse boats and respirations 
are rapid, (^hillino- oi' tho body oi'ours, and the animal may 
ap{H>ar dull and refuse to eat. The animal coiiuhs t'i'Oiiuontly. 
KeroN'ory iH'i'urs within a tew days, unless oom]dioateil by sore 
thviiat and pnounumia. in the luu'so, bronchitis is not a seritms 
disease, but in other animals recinery is delayed and complica- 
tions are nun'o ciunmon. 

/;; (7/ /•()»/(• hroncliHi.^ in the 1i(n'S(\ tlu^ animal coughs fro- 



DISEASES OF THE RESrillATOliY APPAJtATUS 97 

qucntly, there is more or lesH (liH(;liari!,o froiri tin; nostrils and 
the respii'ations may Uocowu) lahor(Ml when (!xef<*is(!(l, TIk; ani- 
mal is usually w(!ak, in pooi' llcsli and iiiilil, foi' work. In otliisr 
cases, symptoms of broken wind arc; noliccul. Severe con^liin'i;' 
spells on getting up from the bed, oi- on moving ahoni, ar(! cliar- 
aeteriatie of bronchitis in liogs. V(!riMinons bconcliil Is in ealv(!8 
and lajrd)S is cliaraelciri/.ed by s(!V(!r(! s|)(!lls of coiigliing, dillicnlh 
and labored brcsathing and a weak, (arniciated condition. 

The 'prc/vcMlive Ireal.nienl is the sanu; as for " colds." In 
the acute form tlu; trealmenl, conslsis largcily in caj'cd'nl nnrsing. 
Properly ventilated, ch^an (|narl(!rs that are hoAi from diisl: slionid 
he provided. Ilie aninnil should bo covered with a light or 
heavy blanket, d(!pending on the temperature of the stahlc;, and 
the limbs bandagxid. A light dicit slionid be I'cA for a (ew days. 
It is advisable to give the animal a physic, of oil. Tlic; inhalalion 
of steam ovc.ry few honrs during tlu; (ii'si few days shonid be 
practised, (jllycohciroin may be given thrc^; or fonr limes a day. 

Animals ad'eclxMl with ehr-onlc l)r'onchIlIs slionid not Ix; 
exer(;ised or workcnl. We shonid guard jigainst Uuiir taking 
cold, giv(! nourishing f(!eds, and a tonic if nec(!ssary. 

Congestion of the Lungs. — i'nlmonary eongtislion is grsner- 
ally due to overexertion and exposur'c to extrenK; heal, or cold. 
It may occur if the animal is exercised when sick or exhauslcd. 
J logs that are heated from exercise; and allowed aecess lo cold 
water, may sulTer from a cong(!stion or engorg(;ment of llie, 
lungs. It may be j)i-es(!nt at the; Ixiginning of an allack of 
pneumonia or j)leurisy. 

T/ie HynipLoms are di (lieu It breaihing and the animal (ighis 
for its breath, The body temperature may be s(;v<!ral d(!gr(!(;s 
above the normal. In the mild form, the above symptoms an; not 
so marked. The onset and course of the disease are ra[)id, 
recovery, j)n(!umonia, or d(^alli often occurring within twenty- 
fonr- hours, 

J'ulmonary hemorrluu/c is not un(;(;nunoii. 'J'hc discharge 
7 



98 NON-SPECIFIC OR OENEIIAL DISEASES 

I'lctiii the nostrils may 1h' slii!,litl_y tiiii^'od with hlood, or there 
iiiii.v l»c an iiitcM'inittciit discharges of hlood from the nostrils or 
mouth, 'riio nuu'ons niomhranes are pale, the animal trembles 
and shows marked dvspiKr;!. 

llie preveiilire Ircatmcni consists in using the proper jndg- 
ment in caring for, and in working or exercising animals. This 
is especially trnc it' tlu^ animal is aifected willi acnte or chronic 
disease. At \\\v vcrv beginning, bleeding should be ])ractis(Ml. 
Hot blankets renewed frequently and bandages to the limbs is 
a very necessary part of the treatment. In case of severe pul- 
moniiry licmorrlnige, ti'cnlnicnt is ol little nse. 

Pneumonia. — I nllnmmal ion of tlie lungs is more common 
in horses tlian in ;iny of tin; otlicr donu^stic :inim:ils. Tlie 
cron|)ous form is the most common. Tlu^ inllamnial ion may 
allect one, or bolli Inngs, one or more lohes, or scattered lobnlcs 
of Inng tissue. i'lie iullannmilion may be acute, snbncnte or 
chronic. 

The causes ww wry mncli llu> siime as in other i'(>spiratorv 
diseases. Exposure to cold nnd wet, stable di';inghls, hecoming 
chilled aft(M' p(M's])iring freely and washing the animal with 
cold watcM- are tlu* conunon causes of piuMuno'ii;!. Tnlbimmation 
of lh(> Inngs is especially ajtt to occnr if Ihe ;inim:il is not 
accustonuMl to such exposure. Animnls alTecled wiili oilier 
respiratory diseases ;n'(> pr(>dis}>osed to pneumonia. Drenching 
aviinuils by way ol" the nostril and in-itating drenches, or re- 
gn)'git:it(*d ftHnl i)assing into the air passages and lungs are the 
traumatic causes of pn(Mnnoni;i. 

The si/))i ploDis vary in the dilTcrent forms of jmemnonia. 
In case ])nenmoni;i occurs scH'oiuhii'ily, \\w earliest symptoms 
are conf(»nnded with thos(> ol" th(> pi'imary disease. The livst 
symptoms noticed nuiy be a high body tem})erature, as indicated 
l)y chills, and refusing to (\it. The visible mucous membranes 
are red and congested, tlu> nostrils dilated, the res])irations 
(piickcned and dillicult, {\\v (^xpired :iir hot iind tlu^ pulse IxMts 



DISEASES OF I'lII'] KE.Sl'JI{,A'l'()l{,y AI'I'AKA'I'fJS 99 

accelcratcid. Tlic aiiiiiiiil ('()ii<;1ih, iind in (iio horse, a nisty 
discliargc may be noti(;cd adhering to the margins of the nostrils. 
The horse refuses to lie down if both lungs are inflamed. In 
severe cases the expression of the face indicates pain, the respira- 
tions are labored, the general symptoins aggravated, and the 
animal staiuis with the front feet spread apart. Cattle are in- 
clined to li(! down, nnio.sH the lungs are seriously affected. I logs 
like to burrow under the litter. 

The course of croupous pneumonia is typical, and unless 
it tenninates fatally in the first stage, the periods of congestion, 
hepatization iind n^soliilioti follow cjicli other in re^ilar ni;inn(;r. 
Anscnitation of the lungs is of great value in diiignosing and 
watching the progress of the disease. It is more dillicnlt to 
determine the character of tlie lung sounds in i;ho horse and cow 
than it is in the small animals. This is especially difficult if the 
animal is fat. During the period of congeslion whi(;h lasts 
about a day, (mo can hear both healthy and crepitating sounds. 
I'lie period of hepatization is characterized by an absence of 
sonnd over the diseased area. The inflammatory exudates be- 
come organizedat the beginning of this stage, and the air (;an not 
enter the air cells. This period lasts several days. Resolution 
marks the beginning of recovery or (;onvalescence. Toward the 
end of tlic second period, the inflammatory exudate in the air 
(;ells has begun to dcgcTierjite. In the last stage, tliose exudates 
undergo liquefaction and ar(; ahsorhed, or (;x|)c.II(mI hy cougliing, 
in from seven days to two weeks, depending on the extent of the 
inflammation and the general (condition of the animal. 

In the subacute form the symj)toms are mild and may sub- 
side within a w(!ol<. Sornetim(!S aljscesses form in the; Inrig. 
(Jangrenoas in/lanmiation of the lung can be recog'ni/(;d by the 
odor of the expired air and the severity of the symptoms. This 
form of pneumonia terminates fatally. If the larger portion 
of the lung tissue is inflamed, death from asphyxia may accnr 
in the second stacre. 



100 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The success in the treatment of pneumonia depends largely 
on the care. Properly ventilated, clean, comfortable quarters 
and careful nursing are highly important. Larger animals 
should be given a roomy box stall. Cold does not aggravate 
pneumonia, providing the animal's body is well protected with 
blankets and the limbs bandaged. Wet, damp quarters and 
draughts are injurious. Hogs should be given plenty of bedding 
to burrow in. A light, easily digested diet should be fed. Very 
little roughage should be fed. If the animal does not eat well, 
it may be given eggs and milk. Weak j)iilse beats should be 
treated by giving digitalis and strychnine. Counterirritation 
to the chest wall is indicated. During convalescence, bitter 
tonics may be given. Constipation should be treated by giving 
the animal oil. 

Pleurisy. — Inflammation of the pleura is most common in 
horses. It occurs in all farm animals and is frequently uni- 
lateral. There are two forms of pleurisy, acute and chronic. 
Pleuropneumonia is common when the cause is a specific germ. 
This occurs in tuberculosis, pleuropneumonia of horses and 
pneumococcus infection. 

The common causes are exposure to cold, chilling winds, 
draughty, damp quarters, and drinking cold water when perspir- 
ing. Injuries to the costal pleura by fractured ribs and punc- 
tured wounds may cause it to become inflamed. 

The early symptoms of acute pleurisy are chills, rise in 
body temperature, pain and al)dominal breathing. The most 
characteristic symptom is the ridge extending along the lower 
extremities of the ribs (pleuritic ridge). The animal does not 
stand still as in pneumonia, but changes its position occasionally, 
its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt. 
Pressure on the wall of the chest causes the animal to flinch 
and show evidence of severe pain. Large animals rarely lie 
down. The cough is short and painful. On placing the ear 
against the wall of the chest and listening to the respirations. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 101 

we are able to hear friction sounds. After a few days effusion 
occurs in the pleural cavity. Although the animal may have 
refused to eat up to this time, it now appears greatly relieved 
and may offer to eat its feed. This relief may be only tem- 
porary. If the fluid exudate forms in sufficient quantity to cause 
pressure on the heart and lungs and interfere with their move- 
ment, the pulse beat is weak, tlie respirations quick and labored, 
the elbows are turned out and the feet are spread apart. All 
of the respiratory muscles may be used. The expression of the 
face may indicate threatened asphyxia. We may determine the 
extent of the pleural exudate by auscultation. There is no 
evidence of respiratory sounds in that portion of the chest below 
the surface of the fluid. Dropsical swellings may occur on 
the under surface of the breast and abdomen. 

In subacute cases evidence of recovery is noted in from four 
to ten days. Acute pleurisy very often terminates fatally. 
Under the most favorable conditions, recovery takes place very 
slowly, sometimes extending over a period of several months. 
It is not uncommon for the horse to continue having " defective 
wind." 

The treatment consists in good care, well ventilated quarters 
and careful nursing, the same as recommended in the treatment 
of pneumonia. At the very beginning, the pain may be re- 
lieved by the administration of small doses of morphine. If 
the conditions in the stable permit, a hot blanket that has been 
dipped in hot water and wrung out as dry as possible, may be 
applied to the chest wall and covered with a rubber blanket. 
This treatment should be continued during the first few days 
of the inflammation. These applications may be reinforced 
by occasionally applying mustard paste to the sides of the chest. 

The animal should be allowed to drink but a limited amount 
of water. The feed must be highly nutritious. Milk and eggs 
should be given if necessary. A laxative dose of oil should be 
given. Calomel, aloes, and digitalis are recommended when the 



102 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

effusion period approaches in order to increase the elimination 
of fluid, and lessen its entrance into the body cavity. If the 
amount of effusion is large, puncture of the thoracic cavity with 
a trocar and cannula may be practised. This operation should 
be performed carefully, and all possible precautions used against 
infection of the wound. During the later period of the disease 
iodide of potassium, iron and bitter tonics should be given. 

Broken-wind, Heaves. — The terms broken-wind and heaves 
are used in a way to include a number of different diseases of 
the respiratory organs of the horse. The term heaves is applied 
almost wholly to an emphysematous condition of the lungs. 
Broken-wind may include the following diseased conditions: 
obstruction of the nasal passages by bony enlargements and 
tumors ; tumors in the pharynx ; enlarged neck glands ; collection 
of 13US in the guttural pouches and paralysis of the left, or both 
recurrent nerves (roaring). 

The common causes of heaves are pre-existing diseases of 
the respiratory organs, severe exercise when the animal is not 
in condition and wrong methods of feeding. Heaves is more 
common in horses that are fed heavily on dusty timothy and 
clover hay and allowed to drink large quantities of water after 
feeding, than in horses that are fed green feeds, graze on 
pastures or receive prairie hay for roughage. CJhronic indiges- 
tion seems to aggravate the disease. Over-distention of the 
stomach and intestines due to feeding too much roughage and 
grain interferes with respiration. Severe exercise when in this 
condition may result in over-distention, dilation and rupture of 
the air cells. This is the most common structural change met 
with in the lungs of horses affected with heaves. It is termed 
emphysema. 

The common symptoms noted are the double contraction of 
the muscles of the flank with each expiration, a short, dry cough 
and the dilated nostrils. The frequent passage of gas is a promi- 
nent symptom in well-established cases of heaves. Chronic 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 103 

indigestion is commonly present in heavy horses that are not 
well cared for, or are given hard work. This condition aggra- 
vates the distressed breathing. 

Heaves is a permanent disorder, but it may be relieved by 
climatic changes and careful attention to the animal's diet. 

The following preventive treatment is recommended : Dusty 
hay should not be fed to horses. Clover hay is not a safe feed 
for horses that are worked hard. When starting on a drive 
after feeding, the horse should not be driven fast, but allowed 
to go slowly for a few miles. 

The symptoms can be greatly relieved by careful attention 
to the diet. A limited quantity of roughage should be fed, and 
this should be good in quality and fed in the evening. During 
the warm weather, the animal should be watered frequently. 
After quitting work in the evening the animal may be allowed 
to drink as much water as it wants. Plenty of grain, soft feed 
and roots may be fed. A small handful of flaxseed meal given 
with the feed helps in keeping down constipation. Fowler's 
solution of arsenic may be given twice daily with the feed, in 
half -ounce doses for a period of ten days or two weeks. Chronic 
indigestion should be combated by digestive tonics. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the organs that form the anterior and posterior air passages. 

2. To what conditions are the injurious eflfects of keeping animals in a 

poorly ventilated stable due? 

3. State the purpose of ventilation. How can the need of ventilation be 

determined in a stable? 

4. State the causes of " cold " in the head ; give the treatment. 

5. State the cause of bronchitis ; give the treatment. 

6. What are the causes of pneumonia? Describe the symptoms and 

treatment. 

7. What symptoms are characteristic of pleurisy? Give the treatment 

for pleurisy. 

8. Give the causes and treatment of •' heaves." 



CHAPTER IX 
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS 







c 



General Discussion. — The circulatory organs are the heart, 
arteries, veins and lymphatics. The heart is the central organ 
of the circulatory system (Fig. 2o). Its function is to force 
the hlood through the blood-vessels. It is situated in the thoracic 
cavity between the lungs, and enclosed by a special fold of the 

pleura, the pericardial 
sack. There are two 
kinds of blood-vessels, 
arteries and veins. 
The arteries leave the 
lieart and carry the 
blood to the many dif- 
ferent organs of the 
body. The veins re- 
turn to the heart and 
carry the blood from 
the body tissues. The 
capillaries are small 
I )lood- vessels, micro- 
scopic in size, that con- 
nect the arteries with 
the veins. The arte- 
ries carry the pure 
blood. The opposite is true, however, of the lesser or pul- 
monary system. The pulmonary artery carries the impure 
blood to the lungs, and the pulmonary veins carry the pure blood 
back from the lungs. The lymphatic vessels carry a transparent 
or slightly colored fluid and chyle from the tissues and ali- 
mentary canal. This system of vessels empties into the venous 
system. 
104 



Fig. 23. — Photograph of model of horse's heart: 
(A) auricle; (B) ventricle; (C) pulmonary artery; 
(F) pulmonary veins; (D) posterior aorta; and (E) 
anterior aorta. 



DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS 105 

The functions of the blood are to nourish the body tissues ; 
furnish material for the purpose of the body secretions ; supply 
the cells of the body with oxygen; convey from the tissues 
injurious substances produced by the cellular activity; and 
destroy organisms that may have entered the body tissues. The 
cellular and fluid portions of the blood are not always destruc- 
tive to disease-producing organisms. In certain infectious dis- 
eases, the fluid portion of the blood may contain innumerable 
organisms, and destruction of the blood cells occurs. 

In inflammation of tissue the circulation of the blood in 
the inflamed part undergoes certain characteristic changes. At 
the beginning there is an increase in the blood going to the part. 
This is followed by a slowing of the blood stream in the small 
vessels, and the collecting of the blood cells in the capillaries 
and veins. These circulatory changes are followed by the migra- 
tion of the blood cells, and the escape of the fluid portion of the 
blood into the surrounding tissue. The character of the above 
circulatory changes depends on the extent of the injury to the 
tissue. 

Palpitation. — This disturbance in domestic animals seems to 
be purely functional. It may occur independent of any organic 
heart disease. A highly nervous condition, excitement, over- 
exertion, debility from disease and the feeding of an improper 
ration are the common causes. 

The heart beats are so violent and tumultuous as to shake 
the body, and be noticed when standing near the animal. 
The heart sounds are louder than normal and the pulse beats 
small and irregular. It may be differentiated from spasm of 
the diaphragm by determining the relationship of the heart 
beats to the abrupt shocks observed in the costal and flank 
regions. 

The treatment consists in keeping the animal quiet and 
avoiding any excitement. A quiet stall away from the other 
animals is best. The treatment of palpitation resulting from 



106 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

some organic heart disease must be directed largely at tlie 
original disease. Morphine is commonly used for the treat- 
ment of this disorder. Weak, anaemic animals should receive 
blood and bitter tonics. If we have reason to believe that the 
disturbance is caused by improper feeding, the animal should 
receive a spare diet for a few days. In such cases it is advis- 
able to administer a physic. 

Pericarditis. — Inflammation of the pericardial sack is 
usually a secondary disease. It is frequently met with in in- 
flueiiza, contagious pleuropneumonia, hog-cholera and rheuma- 
tism. Cattle may suffer from traumatic pericarditis caused by 
sharp, pointed, foreign bodies passing through the wall of the 
reticulum and penetrating the pericardial sack. The jagged 
ends of fractured ribs may cause extensive injury to neighbor- 
ing parts, and the inflammation spreads to the pericardial sack. 

The symptoms of pericarditis may not be recognized at the 
very beginning when the disease occurs as a complication of 
influenza, or infectious pleuropneumonia. The manifestation 
of pain by moving about in the stall, refusing to eat and the 
anxious expression of the face are the first symptoms that the 
attendant may notice. The body temperature is higher than 
normal, and the pulse rapid and irregular. On auscultation, 
friction sounds that correspond to the tumultuous beats of the 
heart are heard. When fluid collects within the pericardial 
sack, the heart beats become feeble and the pulse weak. Labored 
breathing and bluish discoloration of the lips follow. The 
disease usually runs a very acute course. The prognosis is 
unfavorable. 

The treatment recommended in pneumonia is indicated 
in this disease. Absolute rest and the feeding of an easily 
digested, laxative diet is a very essential part of the treatment. 
At the very beginning morphine may be given to quiet the 
tumultuous beats of the heart. Cold applications to the chest 
wall in the form of ice packs should be used. Heart tonics and 



DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS 107 

stimulants such as digitalis, strychnine and alcohol should he 
administered when the pulse beats weaken. To promote absorp- 
tion of the exudate, iodide of sodium may be given. Mustard 
paste, or a cantharides blister applied over the region of the 
heart is useful in easing the pain and overcoming the in- 
flammation. If fluid collects in sufficient quantity to seriously 
interfere with the heart action, the sack may be punctured with 




Fig. 24. — Elephantiasis in horse. 

the trocar and cannula and the fluid withdrawn. Great care 
must be used to avoid injury to the heart and infection of the 
part. 

Acute Lymphangitis. — This is an inflammation of the 
lymphatic vessels of one or both hind limbs. The attack comes 
on suddenly and usually occurs in connection with rest, and in 
horses that are of slow, quiet temperament. The exciting 
cause is an infection of the part with bacteria, the infection 



108 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

probably occurring through some abrasion or small wound in 
the skin. 

The local symptoms are swelling, tenderness and lameness 
in the affected limb. The animal may refuse to support its 
weight on the aft'ected limb. The lymphatic glands in the region 
are swollen, and the swelling of the limb pits on pressure. In 
the chronic form of the disease, the regions of the cannon and 
foot remain permanently enlarged, and the swelling is more 
firm than it is in the acute form (Fig. 2-i). 

The general symptoms are high body temperature, rapid 
pulse and the partial or complete loss of appetite. 

The following treatment is recommended: Exercise is indi- 
cated in cases that are not sufficiently advanced to cause severe 
lameness, or inability to use the limb; rest and the application 
of woollen bandages wrung out of a hot water solution of liquor 
cresolis compound are recommended ; E])som salts in one-half 
pound doses may be given and repeated in two or three days ; a 
very light diet of soft feed should be given ; liniments should 
7iot be applied until the soreness in the limb has subsided; 
iodide of potassium may be given twice daily with the feed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the functions of the blood and lympli? 

2. State the changes occurring in the circuhvtioii in inllamed tissue. 

3. What is palpitation? Give the causes and treatment. 

4. What are the common causes of pericarditis? 

5. Give the causes and treatment of acute lymphangitis. 



CHAPTER X 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

General Discussion. — The nervous system may be divided 
into central and perii^lieral portions. The central portion com- 
prises the brain or encephalon and the spinal cord. These 
organs are lodged in the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The 
nerves and ganglia comprise the periplieral portion. The nerves 
form white cords that are made up of nerve fibres. The ganglia 
are grayish enlargements formed by nerve cells and supporting 
tissue, situated at the origin of the nerve trunk or along its course. 

The brain is an oval mass of nerve tissue elongated from 
before to behind, and slightly depressed from above to below. 
It terminates posteriorly in the spinal cord. It is divided into 
three portions: cerehrum, isthmus and cerebellum (Fig. 25). 

The cerebrum forms the anterior portion. It is divided into 
two lateral lobes or hemispheres by a deep longitudinal fissure. 
The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is gray and roughened by 
pleats or folds separated by grooves or fissures. The gray or 
cortical layer is distinct from the white or connecting structure. 
The cortical layer is made up of nerve cells or areas which con- 
trol the voluntary muscles of the body. It is connected with the 
special senses of touch, temperature and muscle-sense. The 
gray layer is connected with the posterior portion of the brain, 
the isthmus or medulla oblongata, by the white nerve tissue. 

The isthmus or medulla oblongata is elongated from before 
to behind and connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal 
cord, anteriorly and posteriorly. It is divided into several 
different portions, and is made up largely of white connecting 
fibres with nuclei of gray matter scattered through them. The 
isthmus is hollowed out by a system of small ventricles that 
extend from the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord, where 

109 



110 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



they terminate in a small, central canal. The isthmus is the 
highway between the spinal cord and the higher nerve centres. 
It has in it certain cell centres that give origin to six of the 
cranial nerves. 

The third division of the brain is the cerebellum. This is a 
single mass supported by the isthmus. It is situated posterior 
to the cerebrum, from which it is separated by a transverse fold 



^, ! TT^r- - /% 





Fig. 25. — Photograph of model of horse's brain : (D) longitudinal section; (E) lateral 
view; (A) cerebrum; (B) cerebellum; and (C) isthmus. 

of the membranes covering the brain. This mass of nerve tissue 
is much smaller than the cerebrum. The gray nerve tissue 
forms central nuclei which send out branches that ramify in every 
direction. The centre of the muscular sense is said to be located 
in this division of the brain. A second function is the mainten- 
ance of body equilibrium through its connection with the nerve 
of the middle ear. 

The spinal cord commences at the posterior ojiening (occipi- 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 111 

tal foramen) of the cranial cavity, and terminates posteriorly in 
the lumbar region at the upper third of that portion of the spinal 
canal belonging to the sacrum. It is thick, white in color, irregu- 
larly cylindrical in shape, slightly flattened above and below and 
reaches its largest diameter in the lower cervical and lumbar 
regions. The spinal canal is lined by the outer membrane that 
envelops the cord, which aids in fixing this organ to the wall of 
the canal. The spinal cord is formed by white and gray nerve 
tissue. The gray tissue is situated within the white, and it is 
arranged in the form of two lateral comma-shaped columns con- 
nected by a narrow commissure of gray matter. The extremities 
of the lateral gray columns mark the origin of the superior and 
inferior roots of the spinal nerves. The white tissue of the cord 
is also divided into lateral portions by superior and median fis- 
sures. The inferior fissure does not extend as far as the gray 
commissure, leaving the lateral inferior columns connected by a 
white commissure. There are certain centres in the spinal cord 
that are capable of carrying on certain reflex actions independent 
of the chief centre in the brain. The white matter of the cord 
is made up of paths over which impulses to and from the brain 
are transmitted. 

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Two pairs belong 
exclusively to the special senses, smell and sight. Altogether 
there are ten pairs that are devoted to functions connected with 
the head, either as nerves of the special senses or in a motor or 
sensory capacity (Figs. 26 and 27). There are two pairs dis- 
tributed to other regions. These are the tenth and eleventh pairs. 
The tenth pair or pneumogastric is distributed to the vital organs 
lodged within the body cavities. 

There are forty-tivo or forty-three pairs of spinal nerves given 
off from the spinal cord. The spinal nerves have two roots, 
superior and inferior. The superior is the sensory root and the 
inferior is the motor root, both uniting to form a mixed nerve 



112 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



trunk. The sensory root possesses a ganglion from whicli it 
originates. 

Generally speaking, the cerebrospinal system deals with the 
special senses, movement of skeletal or voluntary muscles and 
cutaneous and muscular sensations. In addition to the above 
there is a distinct system termed the sympathetic. The sympa- 
thetic system consists of a long cord, studded with ganglia, ex- 
tending from the base of the neck to the sacrum. The ganglia 
are connected with the inferior roots of the spinal nerves. This 



Fig. 26. 



Fig. 27. 




Fig. 26. — Unilateral facial paralysis caused by injury to seventh cranial nerve; note position 

of lip. 
Fig. 27. — Bilateral facial paralysis. This colt was affected with facial paralysis when born. 

cord is comiected with groups of ganglia and nerve fibres in the 
abdominal region, and this in turn is connected with terminal 
ganglia in distant tissues. This system of nerves is distributed 
to the vital organs of the body. 

Congestion and Anaemia of the Brain. — In congestion of the 
brain, the blood-vessels distributed to the nerve tissue become 
engorged with blood. It may be either active or passive. 

The cause of anaemia of the brain is an insufficient blood 
supply. This may be due to an abundant hemorrhage and car- 
diac weakness caused by shock or organic heart disease. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 113 

The causes of congestion of the brain are faulty methods of 
care and feeding. It sometimes occurs when horses are shipped 
in poorly ventilated cars, or kept in close stables. Climatic 
changes, or changing the stable and feed, may cause it. Ex- 
tremely fat animals and animals that are rapidly putting on fat 
are predisposed to this disorder. Improper methods of feeding, 
lack of exercise, constipation and excitement are the most com- 
mon causes. Passive congestion may result from pressure on 
the jugular vein by obstructing the flow of blood from the brain, 
and raising blood pressure in the blood-vessels of the brain. It 
is sometimes caused by organic heart trouble. 

The symptoms come on very suddenly in congestion of the 
brain. The disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal 
is moved out of the stall or bed, or it may come on while it is 
feeding. In slight cases, the animal appears excited and rest- 
less, the eyes are bright, the pupils are dilated, and the pulse 
beats and respirations quickened. If the animal is moving 
about, it may stop suddenly and show marked symptoms of a 
nervous disorder, such as turning around, running straight ahead 
and falling down. The period of excitement is usually brief and 
may be followed by marked depression. The mucous membranes 
of the head are a deep, red color. 

The symptoms in anaemic conditions of the brain are loss of 
consciousness, stumbling, falling to the ground and sometimes 
convulsions. The pig and dog may vomit. Favorable cases 
return to the normal within a few hours. Acute inflammatory 
diseases of the brain and its coverings are associated with cere- 
bral hypera^mia or congestion. 

The treatment of mild cases is to give the animal quiet, 
well- ventilated quarters, where it can not injure itself. The 
animal should be first subjected to a severe diet and later given 
easily-digested feed. If it appears greatly excited, bleeding 
should be practised. Cold applications to the head should be 
used in all cases in the small animals. For internal treatment, 
8 



114 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

purgatives are indicated. In cases of anaemia, stimulants, vigor- 
ous massage, artificial respiration and injection of physiological 
salt solution are indicated. 

Sunstroke and Heatstroke. — Most writers make no distinc- 
tion between heatstroke and sunstroke. The latter is caused by 
the direct rays of the sun falling on the animal, and the former 
from a high temperature and poor circulation of air in the sur- 
roundings. Under such conditions, the physical condition of 
the animal and exertion play an important part in the production 
of the nervous disturbance. 

The first symptoms usually noted are rapid, labored breath- 
ing, depression and an anxious expression on the face. The 
horse usually stops sweating. The body temperature is extremely 
high, the pulse beats weak, the animal trembles, falls to the 
ground and dies in a convulsion. Unless measures directed 
toward relief of the animal are taken early in the attack, death 
commonly occurs. Overheating is rather common in horses that 
are worked hard during the extremely warm weather. Horses 
that have been once overheated are afterwards unable to stand 
severe work during the hot months of the year. Horses in this 
condition become unthrifty, do not sweat freely and pant if the 
work is hard and the weather is warm. 

The preventive 7veasures consist in not exposing animals that 
are fat, or out of condition to severe exercise if the day is close 
and hot, especially if they are not accustomed to it. When hand- 
ling or working animals during hot weather all possible precau- 
tions to prevent overheating should be practised. 

The treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool, shady 
place and fomenting the body with cold water. The cold packs 
or cold fomentations should be applied to the head and forepart 
of the body only. Small doses of stimulants may be given. 

Meningo-cerebritis. — The discussion of inflammation of the 
brain and its coverings can be combined conveniently, as the 
causes, s\Tnptoms and treatment vary but little. This disorder is 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 115 

met with in all species of domestic animals, but it is most com- 
mon in horses and mules. Some writers state that meningo- 
cerebritis is more common during the warm season than it is 
in the winter. However, this does not hold true in all sections. 
In the middle west, this disease is more common in late fall and 
winter. 

It is commonly caused by taking into the body with the feed 
and water certain organisms and toxins that are capable of pro- 
ducing an inflammation of the brain. The infectious organism 
or toxins are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestines. 

The secondary form of the disease usually occurs in connec- 
tion with other diseases such as influenza, tuberculosis and acute 
pharyngitis, or as a result of wound infection. Unhygienic con- 
ditions, as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables and filthy 
drinking places, play a very important part in the production 
of the simple or acute form of meningitis. 

Sudden changes in the feed and the feeding of rotten, mouldy 
feeds may cause it. In the fall and winter it may follow the 
feeding of too heavy a ration of shredded fodder or any other 
dry feed. Other exciting causes are overexertion, changes in 
climate, excitement, injuries to the head and the feeding of too 
heavy and concentrated a ration. 

The symptoms vary in the different individuals, but in gen- 
eral they are the same. At first the animal is dull, or extremely 
nervous and sensitive to sounds. The pupils of the eye are un- 
evenly contracted at first, later dilated. The eyes may appear 
staring, or they are rolled about, so that the white portion is 
prominent. The unusual excitement is manifested in different 
ways by the different species. During the dull period the animal 
is indifferent to its surroundings. When it is excited, the pulse 
beats and respirations are accelerated. The body temperature is 
often elevated early in the disease. There is a partial or com- 
plete loss of appetite. Paralysis may be the most prominent 
symptom. The animal lies in a natural position, or stretched 



116 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

out and lifting the bead occasionally and moving the limbs, but 
it is unable to rise. Loss of sensibility may gradually progress 
until the animal becomes semiconscious, or comatose. 

In case the inflammation is acute and involves the greater 
portion of the brain and its coverings, death occurs within a few 
days. Occasionally the animal survives several weeks. There 
are few permanent or complete recoveries. 

The principal lines of treatment are preventive measures and 
careful nursing. This is one of the diseases that can be largely 
prevented by observing all possible sanitary precautions in car- 
ing for animals. It is admitted by writers that the greater 
majority of cases of inflammation of the brain and its coverings 
are caused by infection. Proper stable construction, ventilation 
and disposal of the manure, an occasional disinfection of the 
stable, cleaning and disinfecting the drinking places and water 
tanks, and the necessary attention to the ration greatly reduce 
the loss from this disease. 

The animal should be gotten into a dark, quiet, roomy stall 
that is well bedded. A swing may be placed under a large animal 
if it is able to support any of its weight, and there is no evidence 
of nervous excitement. We should do nothing to disturb it. If 
possible, the position of the animal that is unable to get up should 
be changed, and the bed kept clean and dry. Cold in the form of 
wet or ice packs should be applied to the head during the acute 
stage. Symptoms of excitement must be overcome by large doses 
of sedatives. Iodide of potassium and strychnine may help in 
overcoming the paralysis. The bowels should be emptied by 
giving an occasional physic. A very light, easily digested diet 
should be fed. 

Partial or Complete Paralysis of the Posterior Portion of 
the Body. — This disorder is especially common in the small 
animals. The hog is most frequently affected. 

The following causes may be mentioned : Inflammation of 
the spinal cord commonly occurs in influenza, strangles and 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 117 

mixed infections; constipation brought on by improper feed- 
ing and insufficient exercise is a predisposing cause ; injuries 
such as strains and blows in the region of the back may also cause 
it ; compression of the spinal cord by the vertebrae is no doubt a 
very common cause ; dislocation, enlargement of the disks between 
the vertebra^, bony enlargements resulting from strains and in- 
juries, rickets, tuberculosis and actinomycosis and tumors com- 
monly cause compression of the cord. It is rarely caused by 
parasites. Young, fat animals are especially prone to injuries 
in the region of the back. Such animals may suffer from mal- 
nutrition of the bones, and complete fractures of the thigh bones 
may occur. Extreme heat from the sun's rays and close, hot 
quarters are probable causes. 

The symptom that is most prominent is the partial or com- 
plete loss of control over the movements of the hind parts. The 
appetite may be little interfered with. The animal may sit on 
the haunches, with the limbs projecting forward, or swing the 
hind quarters from side to side in walking or trotting. Irregu- 
larity in the animal's movements is especially noticeable when 
turning or backing. In case the animal suffers pain, the spine 
is held rigid or arched, and when forced to move, marked evi- 
dence of pain occurs. There may be a decrease or increase in the 
sensibility of the part. The increase in sensibility is noticed on 
striking the muscles with the hand or rubbing the hair the wrong 
way. Spasmodic twitching or contractions in the muscles some- 
times occur. There is frequent elevation of temperature. The 
animal is unable to pass urine or fieces, or there may be an 
involuntary passage of the body excretions. 

The outcome of this disease is unfavorable. Acute inflam- 
mation of the covering of the cord may subside within a few days. 
Cases that do not recover within a few weeks should be destroyed. 
Paralysis of the hind parts should not be confused with rheuma- 
tism, azoturia and other disorders that may interfere with the 
movements of the posterior portion of the body. 



118 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The treatment is largely along preventive lines, A predis- 
position toward rickets, and injuries, may be prevented by feed- 
ing a proper ration, and permitting the animal to take exercise. 
The quarters and the attendant are frequently responsible for 
injuries. If this is the case, the rough handling of the animals 
should be immediately corrected, and any condition of the quar- 
ters that favors the crowding or piling up of animals should be 
changed. Large animals may be placed in swings if they are 
able to support a part of their weight on the hind limbs. This is 
especially indicated at the very beginning of the disorder. Small 
animals should be given a good bed. A very light, easily digested 
ration should be fed. An occasional physic should be adminis- 
tered. Strychnine and iodide of potassium may be given. Cold 
applications to the back are indicated. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What organs comprise the central portion of the nervous system? 

Peripheral portion? 

2. Give a general description of the brain. 

3. Give a general description of the spinal cord. 

4. What is the sympathetic system? 

5. Describe the causes and symptoms of congestion of the brain. 

6. What is heatstroke? Give the treatment. 

7. Give the preventive and curative treatment of inflammation of the brain. 

8. State the causes, and give the proper treatment of paralysis of the pos- 

terior portion of the body. 



CHAPTER XI 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN 

General Discussion. — The two layers that form the skin are 
the epidermis and the derma. The cells of the outer layer or epi- 
dermis are of two kinds. The superficial portion is formed by 
horny, flattened cells and the deeper by softer cells. This layer 
of the skin varies greatly in thickness in the different species. 
The derma is composed of some muscular fibres interwoven with 
the connective-tissue fibres. It contains the roots of the hair fol- 
licles, sweat and oil glands. The external face which is covered 
by the epidermis shows a multitude of little elevations. These 
are the vascular and nervous papillae. In addition, it shows 
openings through which the hairs and the skin glands pass. 
The inner surface is united more or less closely to the muscular 
or underlying tissue by a layer of fibro-fatty tissue. 

The appendages of the shin are the hairs and horny produc- 
tions. The horny productions comprise the horns, chestnuts, 
ergots, claws and hoofs. 

The hair varies in length, thickness and coarseness in the 
different species, and the different regions of the body. In addi- 
tion, breeding, care, heat and cold may cause marked variations 
in the thickness of the coat. Exposure to cold causes the coat 
to thicken. High temperatures cause the short hairs to drop 
out and the coat to become thin. 

Diseases of the skin may be classified as parasitic and non- 
parasitic. Parasitic skin diseases are caused by animal and 
vegetable parasites. JSTon-parasitic skin diseases are caused by 
irritation to the skin and internal causes. Irritation to the skin 
may be either chemical, thermic or mechanical. The internal 
causes may be due to an individual predisposition together with 
digestive disturbances and the eating of feeds too rich in protein. 

119 



120 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

In this chapter parasitic skin diseases produced by insects will 
not be discussed. 

Falling Out of the Hair and Feathers. — Falling out of the 
hair and feathers frequently occurs independent of parasitic 
diseases. This condition does not occur as an independent dis- 
order, but as a secondary afTection. It is due to faulty nutrition, 
and irritation to the skin. Intestinal diseases, insufficient feed 
and feed of bad quality are common causes. Animals that are 
fed a heavy ration, or that lie on dirty, wet bedding frequently 
lose large patches of hair. Sheep that are dipped in late fall 
and early winter, or exposed to wet, cold weather may lose 
a part of their fleece. It is not uncommon for animals toward 
the latter period of pregnancy, or that sweat freely, to lose patches 
of hair. 

Falling out of the hair heals of itself within a few weeks. 

The preventive measures are of special importance in sheep 
and horses. This consists in avoiding conditions that may lead 
to alopecia and in correcting the diet. In horses the regions of 
the mane and tail should be washed with soap, or rubbed with 
alcohol and spirits of camphor, equal parts. Treatment should 
be persisted in for a long period if necessary. 

Urticaria, " Nettlerash." — Urticaria is characterized by 
roundish elevations that appear quickly and become scattered 
over a part or the whole surface of the skin. They are caused 
by an inflannnatory infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin. 
Horses and hogs are most frequently affected. 

The causes of urticaria are irritating juices of certain plants, 
secretions of flies, ants and some caterpillars, irritating drugs, 
scratching, sweating and the action of cold on a warm skin. It 
has been observed in connection with the feeding of certain legu- 
minous feeds and digestive disturbances. Horses that are fat, or 
putting on flesh rapidly, seem to be predisposed to this disorder. 
Urticaria may occur in certain infectious diseases. 

The cliaracterisiic symptom is the formation on the skin of 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN 121 

roundish elevations or " hives." There may be an elevation of 
body temperature and partial loss of appetite. Small animals 
may act restless and show evidence of itching or pain. This 
symptom is very common in hogs. The eruption may last only 
a few hours or a few days, or, because of the animal's scratching 
or rubbing the part, the skin may become scabby and small 
pustules form. 

An important preventive measure is to avoid the use of agents 
capable of irritating the skin and producing urticaria when treat- 
ing parasitic skin diseases. It is very advisable to give the animal 
a saline cathartic (Epsom or Glauber's salts). The skin may 
be washed with cold water, or a weak water solution of perman- 
ganate of potassium. 

Acne, " Summer Rash." — In this skin disease the oil glands 
and hair follicles are inflamed and sometimes infected with pus 
germs. This results in skin eruptions varying in size from the 
point of a pin to about a quarter of an inch in diameter. This 
inflammation is most prominent during the warm weather. 

The causes are local irritation to the skin from lying on 
filthy floors, sweating and irritation from the harness. According 
to some writers, pus germs are the only cause, the mechanical 
agents merely aiding in the production of the infection. 

The face, side of the neck, shoulders, back and sides of the 
trunk and quarters are the usual seats of disease. The pimples 
or nodules may disappear within a few weeks, or persist through- 
out the warm season. The eruption may disappear without leav- 
ing scars, or suppuration occurs and small bald spots result. 

The treatment consists in removing the cause of the disease 
and cleaning the skin with antiseptic washes. The surroundings 
of the animal must be kept clean and a good bed provided. If 
possible, the horse should be laid off from work as soon as the 
condition is noted. Washing the part with a weak water solution 
of permanganate of potassium may be practised daily. Fowler's 
solution of arsenic may be given. This may be given with the 
feed. 



122 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

Eczema, — This is an inflammation of the vascular capillary 
bodies and the superficial layer of the skin. There may be 
marked inflammatory exudate, causing the surface of the skin 
to become excessively moist and more or less itching. Redness, 
vesicles and pustules may characterize the inflammation. In the 
chronic form the skin may become thickened and greatly changed 
in structure. 

Eczematous inflammation of the skin may occur in all domes- 
tic animals, but it is most common in the dog. In the horse 
local eczema (scratches) is common. 

The most frequent cause is external irritation. Accumu- 
lations of filth on the skin and continual wetting of the part are 
common causes. Mechanical causes are rubbing, pressure, the 
action of the sun's rays and chemical irritants. Internal causes, 
such as catarrhal diseases of the stomach and weakness and 
emaciation from disease, may act as direct or predisposing causes. 
Tender-skinned animals seem to be predisposed to the disease. 

The si/n)ptoms vary in the different species of animals. In 
the horse the thin skin posterior to the fetlock and knee, in front 
of the hock and on the under side of the body is most commonly 
inflamed. Moisture and dirt seem to be the most common causes. 
Eczema may involve the skin covered by the mane and tail in 
animals that are not properly groomed and inclined to rub or 
scratch. Cattle may suffer from eczematous inflammations in 
the region of the forehead, back of neck and base of tail. A very 
common form of the disease involves the space between the toes. 
Sheep frequently suffer from inflammation of the skin over the 
fetlock region. The skin of animals having long fleeces, or heavy 
coats of hair that become wet at a time when there is no oppor- 
tunity to dry out quickly, may become inflamed. Dogs are 
commonly affected by the acute and chronic forms of eczema. 
Eczema of swine is limited mostly to young hogs. It is rather 
rare, excepting in hogs that are pasturing on certain kinds of 
clover and rape, or on muck lands. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN 123 

The inflammation is accompanied by a marked tenderness 
and itching, and the animal licks and scratches the part. This 
increases the extent of the skin lesions. The skin appears moist, 
later dirty, scabby and thickened. Cracks and pnstules may 
form. Gangrene and sloughing of the skin may occur. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. Cases of 
eczema caused by filth and wetness can be prevented by giving 
the necessary attention to keeping the skin clean and not allowing 
animals access to muddy, filthy places. Keeping the bed clean 
and regulating the diet are important preventive measures. Be- 
fore the inflammation can be successfully treated the cause must 
be removed. 

In acute eczema it is advisable to protect the part against 
water, filth and air. Powders and ointments may be used during 
the early stages of the inflammation. Two parts boric acid, 
four parts flour, and one part tannic acid may be dusted over 
the moist surface. One part zinc oxide and twelve parts vaseline 
is a useful ointment. Scratching the part should be controlled 
in every case by muzzles, collars and bandages. Dirt and scales 
may be removed from the skin by washing with cotton soaked 
in lime water or linseed oil. The animal should receive laxative 
doses of Glauber's salts or oil every few days. A simple, easily 
digested ration should be fed. The following mixture may be 
applied in obstinate cases: oil of tar and soft soap, two parts 
each, and alcohol one part. 

Common Feed Rashes. — This title includes inflammation of 
the skin caused by pasturing on buckwheat, certain clovers and 
rape, together with moisture and sunlight. 

Green, flowering buckwheat is more dangerous as a feed for 
stock than is the grain or straw. Clovers and rape are not as 
dangerous a feed. The actual cause of the skin becoming 
inflamed is not known. 

The skin in the regions of the face, ears, neck, lower surface 



124 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

of the body and limbs becomes red and covered with vesicles. 
Later, scabs and pus may form. 

The treatment consists in changing the ration and keeping 
the animals out of the sun, or long grass and weeds for a few 
days. This is all the treatment required in most cases. It may be 
advisable to administer a physic. If pus and scabs form, the 
part should be cleansed daily with a one per cent water solution 
of permanganate of potassium. 

Herpes (Fungous Skin Disease). — This is a contagiovis 
disease of the skin caused by thread fungi, Tricopliyton ton- 
surans and epilans, which develop in the skin in localized areas, 
causing vesicles, scabs or scales to appear, and the loss of the 
hair over the part. This skin disease occurs in all domestic 
animals, but it is most commonly met with in cattle. It usually 
affects young cattle. It most commonly occurs in the region of 
the face and neck. Thick, bran-like crusts form over the scattered 
areas of the skin and the hair drops out or breaks off. The 
animals frequently rub the infected area. 

Prompt treatment may prevent the sin^ead of this disease 
in the herd. It may be checked by quarantining the infected 
animals and scrubbing the stalls, stanchions and walls with a 
disinfecting solution. Grooming the infected animal should be 
discontinued. This skin disease responds most readily to oint- 
ments. Flowers of sulfur one part and lard ten parts is com- 
monly used by stockmen. Sulfur-iodide ointment, or tincture 
of iodine may be applied. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a general description of the skin. 

2. Give the causes and treatment of falling of the hair. 

3. What is urticaria? Give the treatment. 

4. What is summer rash? Give the treatment. 

5. What is " scratches "? Give the treatment. 

6. What feeds produce rashes of the skin? 

7. What fiuigus produces an inflammation of the skin in cattle? Give the 

treatment. 



CHAPTER XII 

DISEASES OF THE EYE 

General Discussion. — The eye is situated in the orbital 
cavity, to which it is attached by muscles that rotate it in dif- 
ferent directions. The oi'hit is lined by fibro-fatty tissues that 
form a cushion for the eye. Anteriorly it is protected by the 
eyelids, and in birds by a third eyelid that corresponds to the 
membrana nictitans of quadrupeds. The lachrymal gland which 
secretes the tears keeps the above parts moist. 

The eye is the essential organ of vision. It is formed by a 
spherical shell which encloses fluid or semisolid parts. The 
shell is anteriorly made up of a transparent convex membrane, 
the cornea, while the remainder of its wall is formed by three 
opaque layers or tunics. 

The external tunic is the sclerotic. It is a white, solid mem- 
brane, forming about four-fifths of the external shell. Its ex- 
ternal face is related to the muscles and fatty cushion. It 
receives posteriorly, a little lower than its middle portion, the 
insertion of the optic nerve, which passes through the shell and 
spreads out to form a very thin membrane, the retina or internal 
coat. 

The retina lines about two-thirds of the posterior portion of 
the shell of the eye. It is made up of seven layers. The essential 
layer is named from its appearance, rods and cones. 

The middle coat is the choroid. This is a dark, pig-mented, 
vascular and muscular membrane. The posterior portion is in 
contact with the retina. Anteriorly it forms the ciliary processes 
and the iris. 

The media of the eye are the crystalline lens, vitreous and 
aqueous humors. The crystalline lens is a transparent, biconvex 
body sustained by the ciliary processes. The vitreous humor is 

125 



126 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

a transparent jelly-like substance that fills all the cavity of the 
eye posterior to the lens. The aqueous humor is a liquid, con- 
tained in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye in front 
of the lens. This fluid separates the iris from the front of the 
lens. 

Examination of the Eye. — In examining and treating the 
eye we should avoid rough and hasty manipulation. The animal 
should be approached slowly. It is best for the attendant who is 
familiar with the animal to hold it for the examiner. It is 
advisable on approaching the animal to stroke its face, and in 
the horse to brush its foretop away. The hand should be carried 
slowly to the front of the eye, and the lids separated with the 
fingers and thumb if we wish to obtain a better view of the cornea. 
In cattle the best view of these parts can be obtained by taking 
hold of the nose and lifting the head. It is impossible to make 
a satisfactory examination of the eye outside of the stable where 
the light is coming from all directions. The most satisfactory 
conditions under which a general examination can be made is 
to stand the animal facing a transom, window or open door. We 
may then look directly into the eye and note the condition of the 
different refracting media. 

The lens should appear transparent and free from scars. The 
aqueous humor free from any cloudiness or precipitate. Both 
pupillary openings should be the same size, and not too small 
or too large in the bright light. As we look through the pupil- 
lary openings, both the lens and the vitreous humor should refract 
the light properly and not appear white or greenish- white in 
color. The color of the iris should be noted. If it lacks lustre 
or appears dull, this may indicate an inflammation. In periodic 
ophthalmia in horses the iris loses its lustre and becomes a rusty- 
brown color. It is very important to note this change in the 
appearance of the iris. We should note, in addition, the expres- 
sion of the animal's face, the position of the ears and eyelids and 
manner of the walk. Horses that have defective sight may show 



DISEASES OF THE EYE 127 

a deep wrinkle in the upper eyelid when startled or looking 
directly at an object. Animals that are blind hold the ears in 
a characteristic position, and may stumble and walk over, or run 
into, objects unless stopped. The ophthalmoscope is a very useful 
instrument for determining the condition of the different 
structures of the eyes, when in the hands of persons who are 
trained in its use. 

Conjunctivitis. — This is an inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane lining the eyelids and covering the eyeball. The two 
forms of conjunctivitis common in domestic animals are the 
catarrhal and purulent. 

The symptoms differ in the two forms of conjunctivitis. 
They may be distinguished from each other by the difference 
in the character of the inflammatory discharge. In the catarrhal 
form, there is a discharge of tears and the lids are held more or 
less closed. The mucous membrane is usually brick red in color 
and swollen. A little later the discharge becomes heavier and 
adheres more to the margins of the lids. The lids continue ten- 
der and the inflammation painful. The surface of the cornea 
may appear white and the blood-vessels prominent, but it is only 
in the severe cases that inflammation of this portion of the eye 
occurs. In such cases an elevation in body temperature may 
occur. This is especially true of purulent conjunctivitis when 
primarily caused by an infectious agent. In the purulent form 
the discharge is heavy and pus-like. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. The first 
object must be to remove the cause. Irritating gases resulting 
from stable filth should be remedied by correcting the unsani- 
tary conditions in the stable. Conditions favoring injury to the 
eye from foreign bodies, such as chaff and a careless attendant, 
should be corrected. Animals suffering from the infectious 
or purulent form of inflammation should be separated from the 
other animals. Foreign bodies should be removed promptly be- 
fore they have had an opportunity to set up a serious inflam- 



128 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

niation. It is necessary to coutiue tlie animal in some way before 
attempting to do this. Horses should be twitched, cattle held by 
the nose, and the head of a small animal held firmly with the 
hands. It may be necessary to cocainize the eye before the oper- 
ator can remove the foreign object with absorbent cotton or with 
forceps. 

In case of injuries and irritation to the lids by foreign bodies, 
the eye may be flooded with a three per cent water solution of 
boric acid twice daily, or as often as necessary. Such washes or 
lotions may be applied with a small piece of absorbent cotton, 
using a fresh piece each time the eye is dressed. A medicine 
dropper may also be used. A lotion containing silver nitrate 
two to four grains and distilled water one ounce, is useful in 
combating the inflammation. This may be applied twice daily. 
Irritating lotions should be avoided, if possible, in the treat- 
ment of eye diseases of horses, because of the danger of making 
the animal disagreeable to handle. Boric acid may be dusted 
over the ball of the eye of cattle with a powder blower. 

Periodic Ophthalmia, " Moonblindness." — This is a peri- 
odic inflammation of one or both eyes of the horse. The internal 
structures of the eye are involved by the inflammation, but it 
may appear as a conjunctivitis. 

The cause of this disease is not well understood. Certain 
local conditions seem to favor its development. Undrained land, 
a humid climate, the feeding of a one-sided ration or one that 
does not maintain the vitality of the animal, and severe work 
seem to produce it. Heredity must be accepted as a prominent 
accessory cause. A number of different bacteria have been 
mentioned as causative factors for this disease. 

The symptoms at the very beginning indicate a general in- 
flammation of the eye. The eyelids are swollen, there is an 
abundant secretion of tears, the eyeball is retracted and the lids 
are held more or less closed. As the inflammation progresses, 
the cornea becomes milky in appearance and the aqueous humor 



DISEASES OF THE EYE 129 

may show a precipitate toward the bottom of the anterior 
chamber. The pupil is usually contracted and dilates slowly 
when the animal is moved into the light. The acute inflammation 
gradually subsides, and about the tenth to the fourteenth day 
the lids and cornea may appear normal. 

The periods between these acute attacks of ophthalmia may 
vary from a few weeks to several months. Severe work, debility 
and the character of the ration influence their frequency. It 
is not uncommon for animals that have been given a rest to suffer 
from a second attack on being put to work. The attendant may 
observe a hazy or whitish condition of the margin of the cornea. 
The upper lid may show an abrupt bend of its margin and a deep 
wrinkle. The color of the iris appears to have lost its lustre, and 
the aqueous humor and lens may be cloudy. After a variable 
number of attacks glaucoma or cataract develops. 

The history of the case will enable the attendant to recognize 
this form of ophthalmia. 

Treatment is unsatisfactory. Preventive measures consist 
in avoiding conditions favorable to the production of the disease. 
This should be practised so far as possible. At the time the 
attack occurs, the animal should be given a cathartic. One pound 
of Glauber's salts in a drench is to be preferred. Rest in a 
darkened stall is indicated. An eye lotion containing three 
grains of silver nitrate in one ounce of distilled water should 
be applied to the eye three times daily. A water solution of 
atropine or eserine should be used for the purpose of relieving 
the symptoms of iritis or glaucoma. A very light diet should 
be fed. 

Infectious Ophthalmia of Ruminants. — This occurs as an 
acute inflammation of the eyelids and cornea. The disease is 
highly infectious, afl^ecting all of the susceptible animals in the 
herd. It commonly occurs during the late summer and fall. 

The symptoms appear suddenly. The animal is feverish, 
the eves closed and the cheeks are wet with tears. The cornea 
9 



130 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

becomes clouded, white and opaque. In severe cases, the blood- 
vessels around the margins of the cornea become prominent, 
and ulcers form on its surface. The animal's appetite is impaired 
or lost. There is loss of flesh and temporary blindness. The 
blindness in one or both eyes may persist for a period of from 
two weeks to several months. Permanent blindness is com- 
paratively rare. 

The preventive treahnent consists in practising the necessary 
precautions against the introduction of the disease into the herd, 
and in carefully quarantining the first cases of the disease that 
appear. The affected animal should be given a darkened stall, 
and fed a very light ration until the acute inflammation has 
subsided. From one to one and one-half pounds of Glauber's 
salts should be given. The local treatment consists in the appli- 
cation of antiseptic lotions or powders to the eye. Equal parts 
of boric acid and calomel, dusted into the eye twice daily with 
a powder blower, is a very effective treatment. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the different structures that form the shell of the eye; name and 

describe the, diflferent media of the eye. 

2. Give the general method of examining the eyes of horses. 

3. What is conjunctivitis? Give causes and treatment. 

4. What is " moonhlindness "? Give the symptoms. 

5. Describe the symptoms of infectious ophthalmia of ruminants and the 

treatment. 



CHAPTER XIII 

GENERAL DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS 

General Discussion. — The movements of the different parts 
of the animal body depend on the union of the bones that form 
the skeleton (Fig. 28), and mode of insertion of the muscles. 
The bones meet and form joints or articulations. These are 




Fig. 2S. — Skeleton of horse. 

divided into three clases: movable,, mixed and immovable. 
]S[early all of the articulations in the extremities belong to the 
movable class. The articulations between the bodies of the 
vertebrae belong to the mixed, and those between the flat bones 
of the head to the immovable class. 

The bony surfaces that meet and form the different types of 
articulations are held together by ligaments (Fig. 29). Some- 

131 



132 



NON-SPECIFIC OB, GENERAL DISEASES 



times the ligament is placed between the bony surfaces, but 
usually it is attached to the margins of the articular surfaces 
that it unites. The immovahle class possesses fibrous-like liga- 
ments that are placed between the margins of the flat bones that 
form the articulation. The mixed articulations are united by a 
fibro-cartilaginous pad that is firmly attached to the articular 
r ^ faces of the bones, and by 

peripheral ligaments that may 
be flat or formed by scattered 
fibres. All movahle articu- 
lations are formed by bony 
surfaces encrusted with a 
thin cartilaginous layer that 
makes them perfectly smooth, 
ligaments and complimentary 
cartilages. Sometimes the 
l)ony surfaces do not fit each 
other, and w^e find between 
them fihro-cartilages that com- 
plete the articulation by 
adapting the articular sur- 
faces to each other. Round 
or flat ligaments may extend 
from one articular surface to 
the other, and attached to the 
margins of the articulation 
are membranous, flat or round ligaments. Muscles and tendons 
that cross the articulations should be included among the 
structures binding them together. 

Movable joints possess a synovial memhrane. This mem- 
brane lines the structures that enclose the articulation and 
secretes a fluid, the synovia, that lubricates the bony surfaces. 

The muscles are the contractile organs that move the body. 
The movement of the different parts of the body is rendered 




Pig. 29. — Photograph of model of stifle joint, 
showing (I, P) ligaments; (L) complementary 
cartilages; (K) femur; and (R) tibia. 



GENERAL DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS 133 

possible through the manner in which the skeletal muscles are 
inserted into the long bones, bj which the lever motion is pos- 
sible. A muscle originating on one bone and terminating on 
another either moves both bones toward each other or, if one 
attachment is fixed, the movable is drawn toward the fixed part. 

We may class muscles as striated or voluntary and unstriated 
or involuntary. A third class, mixed, is represented by the heart 
muscle. The striated is represented by the skeletal muscles, and 
the unstriated by the thin muscular layers that form part of the 
wall of the stomach, intestines, bladder and other hollow organs. 

Rheumatism. — This is an inflammation of the tissues that 
form the locomotory apparatus. The efl^ect of cold on the 
muscles and tendons is an important factor in its production. 
It differs from other inflammations by shifting from one part 
to another. It is termed muscular rheumatism when it affects 
the muscles, tendons and fascia, and articular rheumatism when 
. it involves the articulations. A second classification, acute and 
chronic, depends on the character of the inflanunation. The 
muscular form is common in horses, dogs and hogs, while the 
articular form, more commonly affects cattle. 

The folloiving causes may be considered. Animals that are 
exposed to cold, wet, changeable weather, or kept in cold, damp, 
draughty quarters frequently suffer from rheumatism. Under 
such conditions it is very probable that imperfect metabolism of 
body tissue occurs, and certain toxic products that are capable of 
irritating the muscles and articulations form. Clinical symp- 
toms, and the presence of bacteria in the inflamed tissue indi- 
cate that bacteria and their toxins play an important part in the 
development of articular rheumatism. Heredity is said to be 
an important predisposing factor. One attack always predis- . 
poses the animal to a second. 

The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack. 
Local rheumatism is not accompanied by serious symptoms. The 
regions most commonly involved in local, muscular rheumatism 



134 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

are the shoulder, reck and back. The joints affected in the 
articular form ai'e the knee, fetlock, hip, elbow and shoulder. 
The attack is usually sudden and accompanied by fever, more 
or less loss of appetite and soreness. Loss of control over the 
movement of the hind parts or walking on the knees may occur 
in the smaller animals. The larger animals show a slight or 
severe lameness. The affected muscle or articulation may be 
swollen, hot and tender. Pressing on the part with the hand or 
forcing the animal to move about may cause severe pain. Weak- 
ness and emaciation may occur in generalized and articular 
rheumatism, especially if suppuration takes place in the affected 
joint. 

The prognosis is more favorable in muscular rheumatism 
than in the articular form. Both forms may become chronic. 
It is frequently advisable to destroy animals suffering from the 
articular form because of their emaciated, weakened condition 
and the deformed condition of the joints. 

Tlie preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions fa- 
vorable to the production of rheumatism. In ventilating the stable 
we should avoid draughts. Practical experience indicates that 
allowing a horse to stand in a draught after it has been warmed 
up by exercise is a very common source of muscular rheumatism 
and is especially to be avoided. Young hogs and sows that are thin 
are very prone to rheumatism when given wet, draughty sleeping 
quarters. Houses having dirt or loose board floors are very often 
draughty. Concrete floors when wet and not properly bedded 
with straw are objectionable. Although we do not fully under- 
stand the causative factors, we can take advantage of the knowl- 
edge we have gained from practical experience, and avoid keep- 
ing animals under conditions that are favorable for the produc- 
tion of the disease. It is almost useless to treat rheumatism 
unless the conditions under which it occurred are corrected. 

Tlie treatment is both local and internal. The local treat- 
ment consists in applying a mild liniment to the part, together 
with massage. If the part is tender and painful, hot applications 



GENERAL DISEASES OF^tHE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS 135 

may be used. Spirits of camphor ten parts and turpentine two 
parts, applied daily, are useful in relieving the soreness of 
rheumatic muscles. Salicylate of soda two ounces, fluid extract 
of gentian one ounce, and sufficient water to make an eight-ounce 
mixture may be given internally three times daily after feeding. 
Of the above mixture horses and cattle may be given one-half 
ounce and sheep and swine from one to two drachms. The 
treatment should be continued for a period of from eight to ten 
days or longer. It may be repeated in from one to two weeks. 




Fig. 30. — Atrophy ot the muscles of the thigh resulting from an attack of azoturia. 

Iodide of potassium is very useful in the treatment of chronic 
articular rheumatism. A very light diet should be fed and the 
animal given as complete rest as possible. An occasional physic 
should be given. 

Azoturia, Haemoglobinuria. — This is a disease of solipeds 
affecting the muscles of the quarters. The affected muscles 
become swollen, hard and paralyzed. The disease follows a 
short rest, and rarely occurs when the animal is running in 
pasture or idle for a long period. Animals that are fat or 
rapidly putting on fat are predisposed to it. Animals that have 
had one attack are predisposed to a second. 



136 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The cause of this disease is not positively known. The Ger- 
man veterinarians attribute it to irritation of the muscles by 
cold, and classify azoturia as a rheumatic disorder. The con- 
ditions preceding the attack are not in favor of this theory, 
and cold can not be considered an important causative factor. 
The most acceptable is the auto-23oisoning theory advanced by 
Dr. Law. 

Azoturia is common in the country where feed is abundant 
and wrong methods of feeding horses are commonly practised. 
It is a very common 2)raetice to feed horses accustomed to hard 
work the same ration when idle for a few days as when working. 
The blood of horses cared for in this way may become abnor- 
mally rich in albuminoids. The suddenness of the attack, occur- 
ring shortly after the animal is given exercise, indicates auto- 
poisoning. This may be due to the blood in the portal vessels 
and the liver capillaries, chai'ged with nutritious and Avaste prod- 
ucts from the overfed animal's intestines, being suddenly thrown 
into the general circulation by a more active circulation of the 
blood brought on by exercise. 

The symptoms of disease are manifested shortly after the 
animal is moved out of the stall and given exercise. When the 
animal is first exercised it is usually in high spirits. After 
travelling a short distance it is noticed to sweat more freely 
than ordinarily, breathe rapidly, lag and go lame, usually in the 
hind limbs. It trembles, shows evidence of suffering severe pain 
by turning its head and looking around toward the flanks, 
knuckles over in the hind pasterns, and may fall down and be 
unable to get up. The affected muscles appear to be swollen and 
feel unusually firm when pressed upon with the hand. If the 
horse does not go down recovery may occur within a few hours, 
and we are able to move the horse to the stable. Dark brown 
urine may be passed. At other times, the animal lies in a natural 
position, possesses a good appetite, but can not stand. In the 
severe form, it is restless and shows marked nervous symptoms. 



GENERAL DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS 137 

Tlie prognosis is unfavorable in the severe form. When 
nervous symptoms are absent recovery usually occurs in from 
two to ten days. Complications are common. More or less 
atrophy of the muscles of the quarters may result (Fig. 30). 

The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that 
may favor the production of the disease. JMore attention should 
be given the feeding and care of work animals. If it is not pos- 
sible to permit horses that are worked to exercise in a lot or 
pasture when idle, the ration should be reduced and roots, 
chopped, or soft feed given. 

Careful nursing is an important part of the treatment. As 
soon as the horse shows evidence of an attack, it should be stopped 
and allowed to stand until sufficiently recovered to be moved. 
If paralysis occurs, we should make it as comfortable as possible 
and arrange to move it to a comfortable, warm, well-bedded stall. 
It may be advisable to place the animal in slings. This is not 
advisable in the serious form of the disease because of the extent 
of the paralysis and the nervous symptoms. A very light diet, 
bran mashes, chopped hay or green feed, should be fed during 
the convalescent period and for several days after complete 
recovery has occurred. 

The following lines of medicinal treatment may be recom- 
mended. We should endeavor to stimulate the elimination of 
the waste products from the body by way of the kidneys, intes- 
tines and skin. This may be accomplished by administering 
saline cathartics, covering the body with blankets, encouraging 
the animal to drink plenty of water and feeding soft feeds. 
Glauber's salts may be given as a drench, or eserine may be given 
hypodermically. Sedatives such as chloral hydrate may be used 
to quiet the animal. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a general description of the locomotory apparatus. 

2. Give the causes of rheumatism ; describe the treatment. 

3. What is azoturia ? Give the cause of tliis disease. 



CIIAI'TI'lk' XIV 

S'ri%i)('i'i)iv'[': or riii'; mmi'-.s or riii': iiok':,!'; 

(Iftici.il Discussion.-- hi.-icli liml) i;i Iminrd li\ .-i ruliiniii df 
l)i>iic:i lli:il. rc'il, ii|)(in oiHt iiiMil.licr, loi'iii i ii," iiKnr nv \c:\:<. opi'ii 
:iri<''lr:i. 'I'lic lioiic:! <il llir (-(iliiiiin inccl :iii(| Idiiii :i il icii l;i I imiM 
I li;il, ;i re lifld lovcl lirr l>\' I i,";i iiiciil;., .mi'I iilhiclird In llicir hiccH, 
li(H(lcr:; iiimI ex I inn i I km ;i re in il:!clc:ui lid rciidoii!!. In I lie : ii |K•|•Hl|• 
|ln^ll(lll (I I I lie 1 1 nil) I lie iniiiirlcM jirc lirii\\', l;i |ii'ii ii," i ii I cikhI v, 
;iimI IcMiii ii;iI III" in I lie re," Kill (d I lie. ioiA. in lull'" IcnddiiM. 
r,;icli liiiili Li ili\ idi'd inid Iniir re," ii)ii:i. 'I lie rc"inii;i (d lln' /"/v 
Iniih .ill' llic :.Ih III Idcr, ;iiin, Idrciinn ;ind linclnul . In ihc linn/ 
hiiih .-irc IIm' i'c;' Kill:', id llic |icI\'IM, Ii;iiiim'|i, IIiivIi, Ic;- ;iikI liiiid 
lonl. 'I lie \ci'\, III linn :iic i|i\idr(| inli> lliicf nli ic," i()ii:i oidi. 
'\\\<i lorcjool i;i Idrnicd li\ llic I, nee, ciiiiiKin ;iimI hic, :ind llm 
hnuljooi \)\ llic IkicI-,, cjiiiKiii :ind luc. 

'riu- shoiiMci Itoiic or S(;i|)iil.i im |I;iI iiimI Ii i;i iivii I;i r in ;Ji;i|ic. 
1 1, IH JiM.'K'licd III llic Inink l)\' lic;i\\' iiiiiiiclcM, one ol vvIik'Ii, (o 
j'cllicr Willi il'i Iclldw nil llic n|»|MiMil<' .'.idc, iii;i\' lie (•(iinnnrcd 
III ;i <'rc;il, in ii:;cii hi r ;;lin,"; llnil, MII|»|>orl:i nlidiir I wo lliird;i (d llic 
l»od\' wciylil. Alhiclicd In llic inlcriiiil :iiid c\lcni;il l;icc:i ol 
1,1 lO HC.;i|»ii l;i ;iic lic:i\\' inn .cic.i llnil, p.i .;i o\i'|- llic iJioiiidcr |oiiil, 
:iikI jiccdinc :ilLic|icd jo llic :ii'in lioiic lliroii^di llic iiLicrlion ol 
Ilicir inii:;ciil;i r lilirc;ioi' l)\ ;i .Jiiirl Icndmi. 

'V\\v .Mill l)oiic ot luiiiicriis licldiiv , lo Ihc (d;i;., (d' loll" lioiicM. 
I Ik hii [icnor <'\l rcnn I \' luiiii;i n ll.iMi'ncil lic;id llml lil:; r;illicr 
illl|K'frccM\' lido ;i ;.li,illo\v c:i\il\ in lln' lininciiil ;in"lc ol llic 
M(':i|)iil!i. 'llic i II IciKir <'\l rciiii I y rcMciiiJilcii ;i |ii)i'lioii ol ;i c\liii 
dcr III ;;li;i|)c, niiij lil;i inio ;'Ji;illo\v dc|)rc:i:iioii:i in llii- ::ii pcrinr 
<'\lrciiiil\' ol llic [III nci |»;i I lioiic (d llic loi'c;i I'lii. llic iniiicjci 
licrc ;i fc d I vkIciI i iiIo I \\o ic," kuim, ;i idci'ior :i iid |io:ilc nor lir;icli i;i I 
'I'Ik^ iiiomI, ol llic.Mc iiiiiMidcM (iri;'i ii;i Ic on llic po;, Icnor linrdcr ;ind 
i;{S 



HTlUJCTl/iM'; < >i nil. i.i.vii',:: or '1111, iioi?:;!', I'.'.u 

'\lif<U''i(ir <:y.\rciin\y (li l.li'-, •Jj'/U l'l<-,r li'inc, ;iti'l l':f i/i i ii;i Ic i n Icri'/r) y 
on IJif'/ HUpcrM/f 'txl f-niiti'-;', ol I, lie pri))'',ip;i,l ;<n'i li'-.'ton'i '<f rn'li 
tiU'.iii.iiry ]iiiii<: ')! Ill'; I'/i'Mnn 'I Ix; poHl,<a'Ior ()r;)/'lii;i I inii/'l'-', 
;i;'<; \i<-,iy/ ;i(i'i [;';7/'-/'l ii I 'I li'-y !ir'; 'r,<iin<:li!n<:'. I,<:f/;i''i <-\\><>7/ 
tll\iH('.\(',H, \n;Cil\tH<- itl'V/ ;•'•(•. ;il l;i'-li'''l 1', I, I)': [/'/lol, </(' i li<- ':l [;'///. 

The repjion ol Hi*: iorr.-mn 1, |<,nn':'J I,/ tv/'. \,',n<::^ l.li'-, 
rfldi'UM iuii\ 'illn.a. 'I )i'-, r;i'liu ■, i;-, tj]<; p/ ni''i |>;i I L'/n': ;iti'l !•, '-hrv',':'! 
lOfiOfi," tji'; l';ii;'' K';;i'--,. 'Id': i(lf/;i i;i;in ':lon;";i l<-.'l (l;it, [)';;i'- II, IH 
;ill;i''ti'''l I'; III': <-/-\.<:nr.i\ p',(lj'/n < A' iIj'-. [;'< -.l.'-Ji'/r r;i'-,c, <,!' ijic, 
/•;i'Jiil', ;i/i'l <:/.\t'ii<\: ■,i\,(tV<', \}il; hUp'-.D'jf <:/.\.liunily lA i,\il,: \)i)li<: 
\.(> i'lnn the, po);il, of llic, ^ilfjOVV, 'I li'-. r;i(iii|:; ;i rl )'t(j)}|l,r!H V/MJi tli'; 
iipfj'^r f'T// of kn';'; \)i)iif':. 'I li'', fnii;-;'!l'!;', 'if llii;-, fi-.i/uin ^ tli'-. ;int,i 
fjru/'jiial, ;ir<; divided i)j|,o l,wo nub fc^'iottH, uiiiiu-Uir ;ui'J po>^ 
ittnav. y^i'','/ on^'nada MUp'U'iorly frofn IJc? lov./<',r <:/J.ri:i(i'\i,y 

<A' III'; ;in() fi',)i'; UuA \\\t1 HUp'^'i'/f <r/Afmn\i'\<'M '(f Ui'-, h';n';;; ')f iJl'; 
for';;irfn. uuA t.<:rfnifi;it'-, l/;7/;)r'l th't \h//<-.r <-./A.mm\ty oi thfi VfigUm 
in f,f;n']';ni': tji;it, (/'•/•'///i'-, ;it.l;i'');':') l.o th'-, \,',ii(:-r, lA' f,li<5 kfj';'!^ <;;ilili<ili 
JIfl'i 'lij'ii. 

'J hf; knc': Of '..'jrjj.-]] it:i/\(,ii i;-, f'/f'(n':'l I*/ ;-:';y'',n ;',li'/rt, \)(iit<'/,i 

that am arrangfi^j in t.v/'^ ?'';•//•■:. 'I >i'v/ ^''i"'" '»- «'•'''''« "<' jtr'tj^u- 
luiloriM, 'V\it'MM iU'<i i\i<: arf,ir',uh(t.ionH h<'J,w';<;n thf? I, wo rown, ]>('r 
twcA'M iUc \)()iK'M of <'M<'}i row, and brjtwrjcn iUn lipp'^r ar«d lowor 
T'owH an'J 1,1/'; /Kji^hboring mgiorix. Nearly all the rriotiou taken 

p|}i';C in the art,i':ijljif.i'</i hCftwWJfi t.l/'- u\>i><;r r<,v/ unA i\i<; prin'-ij/;)! 
(;OJi'; of fij'-, i'<>r';ii.nti. 

1 h(: <.:iin)fjn or mct;io;irp;iJ regi'>ri jj^, \'<,rutt-A \,-j l\in;<; \><>nm. 
Thctm are the pririeipal mtitmarfml or eanno/i f/'^ne, ami the rudl- 
tnciii.ury ttKda/'/drp'dl or ;;jJint honen. Tf/e hitt/jfr are att&cAml 
fjf i\i('. iiiiirp^'iti'6 of i\u', po;-,f,<;f'ior far'/j of life chmhoh hone, 'f'h*-. 
n\\\)or\<>r extremities of' thewj hone» urtACMUdo with the Jower roy/ 
of carpal horie^, The eonvex extremity of tlie mtmon brwe meet» 
shallow depreH»ion« in the superior ftxtramity of the, iirnt digital 
Lofje. Th):-; I;-; i",n(n-<l the fftf}f>f!k joint Tf/^. mit/ir'tor aru] po»- 



140 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

tcrior faces of tliis r(\«;ioii arc travel 1(h1 by the loiio;' teridens 
l)cl()iii;iii^' to the extensor and Hexor museles of the dif>,'it. 

The digit or toe is formed by six l)()iies, three of whieli are 
termed accessory or sesamoids. The di^'ital l)()nes may be i^iven 
numerical names. 

The approximal or first digital bone is the sliortest Itmi;- 
l)oiie in the body. The two shallow nrlicular cavities belon,«;iiii;' 
to the superior extremity are completed jxtsterioi'ly by tlu^ two 
sesamoid bones. The inferior extremity is smaller than the 
superior and resembles the inferior extremity of the cannon 
bone in shape, excepting- that it shows a middle groove. The 
anterior and {)Osterior faces are travel I(h1 by the tendons of the 
digital muscles. 

The middle or second digital bone is (|uile short. It articu- 
lates superiorly with the lirst, and iut'eriorly with tlu^ tliii'd bone 
of the digit. The superior face shows two shallow cavities, and 
the inferior two convex surfaces sep:i rated by a median groove. 
'I'he latter face ai'ticulates with the third and navicular bones. 
The ])opular name for (his ni't icuhitiou is llie collin joint. 

The third or distal digital bone nmy be compared to a coiie 
that has been cut away ])osterioi'ly, obli(|uely downwards and 
backwards. The snperioi- face shows two shallow cavities that 
are completed ])osterioi-ly by the supei-ior face of the coliin or 
navicular bone. The antei'ior fiice is convex and cribbled by 
openings, and the inferior face is concave, forming the sole. 
Tendons belonging to the digital muscles terminate on the sum- 
mit and inferior face of this bone. 

The pelvis or haunch is formed by a single bone, the cu.ca, 
that in the ftetus may be divided into three bones. These are the 
ilium, jmhis and iscluutn. It belongs to the class of flat bones. 
Anteriorly it is llattened from before to behind and directcul 
inward and upward. The external angle is rugged and is gener- 
ally termed the angle of the haunch. The internal face of the 
opposite angle articulates with the sacrum, to which it is firmly 



STRUCTURE OF THE LIMB8 OF THE HORSE 141 

attached by ligumeiits. The middle portion is constricted and 
forms a neck. The inferior or posterior portion is flattened 
from above to below, and directed inward to meet the border 
of tlio opposilx; bono. Just below tbe neck and exteriially, there 
is a cup-shaped cavity into which the head of the thigh bone 
fits. The two coxa, together with the sacral ligaments (sacrum) 
and the muscles of the quarter, enclose the pelvic cavity. 

The region of the thigh is formed by the femur, the largest 
long bone in tlie body. The superior extremity is formed by a 
rugged eminence, to whicli the heavy muscles of the quarter are 
attached^ and by an articular head. The inferior extremity is 
formed l)y two convex articular surfaces that are separated by 
a deep notch, and a third pulley-like articular surface, with which 
the patella or knee-cap articulates. The pair of condyles articu- 
lates witb the superior extremity of the leg bone. The thigh 
or femoral region is heavily muscled. 

The leg is formed by three bones. The patella, a short bone, 
has already been mentioned as articulating with the thigh bone. 
Tbe tibia and fibula are tlie otlier two bones in the region. 

The tibia belongs to the class of long bones and the fibula 
is quite rudimentary, being represented by a stylet-shaped bone 
that lies posterior to, and along the outer border of, the tibia. 
The superior extremity of the tibia shows a central spine mar- 
gined laterally by rather plain articular faces. It articulates 
with the thigh h(Mie. The nuiscles of this region are divided 
into two sub-regions, anterior and posterior tibial. 'I'he muscles 
originate from the lower extremity of the femur and the two 
bones in this region, and terminate inferiorly in tendons that are 
attached to the bones of the hock, cannon and digit. 

The hock or tarsal region is formed by six bones. They are 
des(;ribed as forming two rows. In the upper row there are two 
bones and in the lower four. They form a series of articulations, 
the same as the bones of the knee. Practically all of the move- 
ment occurs in the articulation between one of the large bones 



142 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

in the upper row and the lower extremity of the tibia. It may 
be mentioned here that this is the most perfect hinge-joint in the 
body. A very large tendon is attached to the summit of the hock. 
Other tendons cross and become attached to the hock bones. 

The regions of the hind cannon and digit are practically the 
same as the corresponding regions of the forefoot. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the different bones of the fore-limb; hind limb. 

2. Describe the regions of the shoulder, arm and forearm. 

3. Describe the region of the forefoot. 

4. Describe the regions of the haunch, thigh and leg. 

5. Describe the region of the hindfoot. 



CHAPTER XV 

UNSOUNDNESSES AND BLEMISHES 

General Discussion. — The value of a horse depends largely 
on the condition of the limbs and their ability to do the work 
for which they are intended. This fact is frequently overlooked 
by experienced horsemen, who give attention to general confor- 
mation and action rather than to soundness of limb. 

Diseases affecting the limbs may be classed as unsoundnesses 
and hlemislies. This classification is based on the degree to 
which the disease interferes or may interfere with the work that 
the animal is called on to perform. Unsoundnesses interfere with 
the use of the part or the use of the animal for a certain work ; 
blemishes do not. Such a basis for the classification of diseases 
does not enable us to place certain diseased conditions of the 
limbs in the unsound, or the blemish class at all times. A curb 
may, if it produces lameness, be classed as an unsoundness. If 
it does not cause the animal to go lame, and the enlargement on 
the posterior border of the hock is small, it is classed as a 
blemish. A high splint may place the animal in the unsound 
class, but usually a low splint is not considered a serious blemish. 
This classification is based to a certain extent on the relative 
economic importance of the disease, or the influence that the 
disease may have on the value of the animal, as well as any inter- 
ference with the animal's ability to work. 

Recognition of the Disease. — The seat of the disease may 
be in a muscle, tendon, bone or ligament. The general symp- 
tom manifested is lameness or pain. The local symptoms are 
heat, pain, swelling and bony enlargements. The degree of 
lameness and the character of the local lesions vary greatly in 
the different cases. When the animal shows a slight lameness 
and there is little evidence of any local symptom, it requires 

143 



144 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

the services of a skilled and experienced person to locate the 
diseased part. AYhen the part shows local lesions of disease and 
the lameness is characteristic, diagnosis is not difficult. 

The examination should be made while the animal is at rest ; 
while standing in the stall and on level ground ; when moved at a 
walk, or a slow trot on soft ground, or a hard roadway ; and wheal 
moved out after resting a few hours. While examining the 
animal under the different conditions mentioned, the examiner 
must be careful and not pass over any part of a limb wdthout 
determining whether it is normal or not. He should note any 
abnormal position that the animal may take while standing at 
rest. Every movement should be watched closely, as the manner 
of favoring the part may characterize the lameness. iSTegative 
symptoms of lameness in a part may at times prove as valuable 
in forming a diagnosis as positive symptoms. 

The resting of either of the front feet, when the horse is 
standing at ease, indicates that tliere is some soreness in the 
rested limb. Pointing or placing one or both feet well in front 
of the line of support, wdien the animal is standing, usually indi- 
cates a diseased condition of the feet. It is natural for a horse 
that is standing in a stall to rest the hindfeet alternately. When 
the hindfoot is rested because of a soreness in some portion of 
the lind), it may be flexed or extended, the weight rested on the 
toe, and the foot flexed and bearing practically no weight. In 
serious inflammation of the feet, both front feet may be placed 
well in front of the normal position, and the hindfeet well under 
the body. 

When examining a horse, the blanket or harness should be 
removed. The horse should have on an open bridle or halter, and 
the attendant should give it as much freedom of the head as 
possible. The examiner should examine each limb carefully and 
note any symptom of disease that may be present. The attendant 
should walk the animal straight away from the person making 
the examination, toward, and past him, so that the animal's 



UNSOUNDNESSES AND BLEMISHES 145 

movements can be observed from both sides, from behind and in 
front. This examination should be repeated with the horse at 
a slow trot. 

The character of the lameness may enable us to locate the 
seat of the disease. We must first determine in which limb the 
animal is lame. This part of the diagnosis is not difficult. The 
pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased limb 
causes the horse to step quickly and shift as nnich of the body 
weight as possible on the well foot. The foot of the lame limb 
is jerked up rather quickly after weight is thrown on it. This 
favoring of the part varies in the different diseases. When the 
foot of the sound limb conies to the ground, more weight than 
common is placed on it. If the seat of the lameness is in a front 
limb, there is a decided nodding or movement of the head down- 
ward when the weight is placed on the well foot. If both fore- 
feet are diseased, the animal steps shorter and more quickly than 
common. Lameness in a hind limb is characterized by more or 
less dropping of the quarter of the well limb when weight is 
throwm on it, and sometimes by a " hitch " or elevation of tlie 
quarter of the diseased limb when it is carried forward. 

Unless there are local symptoms of disease present, it may 
be quite difficult to locate the seat of lameness. Sometimes local 
symptoms are misleading. After the lameness has been located 
in a certain limb, its movement must be carefully noted in order 
to detect the part favored. If the lameness is not characteristic 
enough to enable the examiner to locate the seat of it, it is then 
necessary to put the animal through some movement that may 
emphasize the soreness in the part. The animal may show a cer- 
tain reluctance to throw weight on the limb when turned to the 
right or left. Moving the horse in a small circle with the lame 
limb on the outside may cause the animal to use the muscles 
of the shoulder more freely, and emphasize any soreness that 
may be present. If the lame limb is on the inside, soreness 
anywhere in the foot may be increased, because of the extra 
10 



146 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

weight thrown on this portion of the limb. Moving the animal 
over a hard driveway may increase the pain resulting from an 
inflammation of the feet. Causing the animal to trot on soft 
ground, step over high objects, flexing, extending, abducting 
and adducting the part may enable the examiner to locate the 
exact group of shoulder or arm muscles involved by the disease. 
In examining the feet it may be necessary to remove the shoes 
and practise percussion and pressure over the region of the sole. 
In some forms of lameness it may be necessary to destroy the 
sensation in the foot by injecting cocaine along the course of the 
nerves that supply the foot before arriving at a definite diagnosis. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define the term unsoundness and give an example. 

2. Define the term blemish and give an example 

3. Give the general method of examining a horse for soundness. 



CHAPTER XVI 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 

Sprains and Injuries in the Region of the Shoulder. — 

Sprains and injuries of the structures in the shoulder region are 
more common in horses that are called on to do heavy work than 
among driving horses. 

The following causes may be mentioned: Ill-fitting collars; 
pulling heavy loads over uneven streets or soft ground; where 
the footing is not secure and slipping are common causes. Young 
horses that do not . 
know how to pull, or 
horses that are tired 
out by hard work, 
are predisposed to 
muscular strain, and 
are apt to suffer in- 
jury if forced to do 
heavy work. Sore 
shoulders, or an ig- 
norant driver, may 
cause the animal to 
pull awkwardly and 
throw more strain on 
certain groups of muscles than they can stand. Kheumatism 
frequently causes shoulder lameness. The muscle usually 
affected by rheumatism is the large muscle extending from the 
region of the point of the shoulder to the summit of the head. 

The symptoms of shoulder lameness vary in the different 
cases. The horse may walk without going lame, but when made 
to trot lameness is quite noticeable. The animal may point with 
the foot of the diseased limb, holding it forward, but squarely 

147 




Fig. 31. — Shoulder lameness. 



148 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

on the floor. In severe strain, little weight is thrown on the 
limb and the lameness is marked (Fig. 31). In " shoulder slip " 
the head of the arm bone pushes outward every time the animal 
throws weight on the limb. This luxation can be noticed best 
when standing in front of the animal. Marked atrophy of the 
external shoulder muscles may occur. Such atrophy may appear 
and disappear quickly, and may result from an injury to the 
nerve supply of the muscle as well as from favoring the part. 
Atrophy of the shoulder may occur if the animal is lame in other 
regions of the limb, especially the feet. The outcome of shoulder 
lameness is favorable if the disease causing it is given prompt 
treatment. 

Piest is a very important part of the treatment. It may be 
advisable to restrict the horse's movements by placing it in a 
single stall, and tying the animal so that it can not lie down. 
This should be continued for at least one week. If the horse is 
restless, it should be given a box-stall or turned out in a small 
lot alone. It should be watered and fed in the quarters where 
confined. The local treatment consists in applying mild lini- 
ments or blisters to the shoulder. It is not advisable, however, 
to apply a blister if the muscles feel hot and tender. 

Capped Elbow, *' Shoe-boil." — Capped elbow is an inflam- 
mation of the bursa at the posterior surface of the elbow (Fig. 
32). The swelling that results is usually sharply defined. It 
may feel abnormally warm and doughy, and it may be painful. 
Later, the enlargement may be well defined and hard. Some- 
times the skin is indurated and lies in folds, or the shoe-boil 
shows abrasions on its surface and fistulous openings leading 
from abscess centres. The cystic or soft tumor is a common 
form. Such an enlargement fluctuates on pressure, and when 
opened, a blood-stained fluid escapes. All forms of capped elbow 
tend to become chronic. 

The treatment is both preventive and local. As capped elbow 
is caused by bruising the part with the hoof or heel of the shoe, 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 



149 



the preventive treatment consists in hindering the animal from 
taking a position that may favor injury to the part. Confining 
the animal in a small stall and tying it with too short a halter 
strap favors a sternal position when lying down. A roomy stall 
that permits the animal to stretch or change position is an im- 
portant preventive measure. Shoes that project beyond the quar- 




FlG. 32. — Shoe-buil. 

ters should he avoided. The elbow may be protected by placing 
a thick pad over the heels when the animal is in the stable. 

Local treatment varies according to the character of the 
enlargement. Soft, doughy swellings may be treated by appli- 
cation of cold, iodine and blisters. The cystic form of tumor 
must be opened, the fluid removed and the lining membrane 
destroyed by the injection of tincture of iodine. Hard, indurated 



150 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

shoe-boils may be treated by completely removing the diseased 
tissue. The surgical treatment of capped elbow requires the 
service of an experienced veterinarian. His efforts may prove 
a complete failure, unless the irritation to the part by the shoe or 
hoof is prevented. 

Injuries to the Knee (Broken Knee). — Horses frequently 
fall and bruise or lacerate the knee when moving at trot or canter. 
The injury varies according to the force of the fall, and the 
character of the road that the animal is travelling over. Some 
individuals are more liable to suffer from this class of injuries 
than others. Horses that are weak-kneed because of poor con- 
formation, or knee-sprung, are inclined to stumble. Careless 
driving, especially if the animal is tired, predisposes it to this 
class of injury. Because of the predisposition toward stumbling 
on the part of some horses, scars on the front of the knee are 
termed broken knee, and the animal is considered unsound. 

The symptoms vary with the extent of the injury. Slight 
bruises or abrasions result in local swelling and soreness that dis- 
appear within a few days. Laceration of skin interferes with 
the movement of the knee and the animal may be quite lame. 
The part becomes swollen and painful. In injuries involving the 
sheaths of the tendons and the synovial membrane, the pain is 
severe and the accompanying inflammation may take on a serious 
form. 

The preventive treatment should not be overlooked. Horses 
should be trained to carry the head at a proper height when 
moving. The driver should handle the reins properly and keep 
his attention on the horse or horses that he is driving. Super- 
ficial bruises require no special treatment other than rest. Lacer- 
ation of the skin and underlying tissue requires complete rest 
and careful removal of any particles of dirt and gravel that may 
be present in the wound. Shreds of tissue that may take no part 
in the healing should be cut away. The hair in the region of t'he 
wound should be trimmed short. Careful and repeated dressings 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 151 

with antiseptics are necessary until the inflammation has largely 
disappeared and healing is rapidly taking place. It may be 
advisable to tie the horse in the stall so that it can not lie down. 

Distended Synovial Sacs, Joint Sheaths and Bursae, 
" Galls." — Soft enlargements may occur in the region of the 
knee and fetlock. They are commonly termed " galls," " wind- 
galls," or " road-puffs." They are usually due to the sheaths 
surrounding the tendons becoming distended with synovia. 
" Galls " are caused by strains, direct injury to the part and 
severe, continuous work. Certain individuals may develop this 
class of blemishes without being subject to any unusual con- 
ditions. This condition is seldom accompanied by lameness. 

The treatment may vary in the different cases. If the dis- 
tended sheath, or bursal enlargement, is caused by a direct injury 
or strain, cold bandages should be applied and the part given 
as complete rest as possible. " Wind-galls " may be removed by 
a surgical operation. It is not advisable to attempt the removal 
of " road-jouffs." Kest, stimulating leg washes and bandages 
may temporarily remove the latter. 

Sprung Knees (Buck Knees). — This condition of the knee 
is characterized by the partly flexed condition of the region. It 
is best observed by standing to one side of the horse (Fig. 33). 
Instead of the forearm and cannon regions appearing perpendicu- 
lar or in line, they are directed forward. This condition may 
exist in varying degrees. Some individuals show it to a slight 
degree, the condition being accompanied by a weakness or shaki- 
ness of the knee when standing at rest. Sometimes, but one knee 
is involved. 

The causes of this unsoundness are hereditary and accidental. 
Weak knees due to faulty conformation seldom escape becoming 
sprung in animals that are given hard work. Severe and con- 
tinuous driving is a common factor in the production of this 
condition. Strains of the flexor muscles of the region may cause 
it. The retraction of the flexor muscles and their tendons and 



152 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



the aponeurosis of the antibrachial region occurs in this disorder 
and prevents the animal from extending the knee. 

The region is gi-eatly weakened by this condition and the 
animal may be nnfitted for active work. For this reason the 
value of the animal is greatly diminished. 

Treatynent is unsatisfactory. The preventive treatment con- 
sists in not breeding animals that have poorly conformed knees 




Fig. 33. — Sprung knees. 



Fig. 34. — Splints. 



and using the proper judgment in working young horses and 
when driving or riding horses. Certain cases may be greatly 
benefited by sectioning the tendons of the external and middle 
flexors of the metacarpi. To insure a successful outcome in any 
case that is operated on, a long period of rest is required. 

Splints. — A splint is a bony enlargement situated along the 
line of articulation between the splint and cannon bones (Fig. 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 153 

34). This blemish is due to an inflammation of the periosteum. 
It is a very common blemish and is generally located along the 
splint bones of the forefeet, especially the internal ones. 

Splints are caused by strains and rupture of the ligament 
that binds the splint bone to the cannon bone. The result is an in- 
flammation of the periosteum. Slipping, or an unbalanced con- 
dition of the foot, may cause this injury by distributing the 
weight unequally on the splint bones. Faulty action and bad 
shoeing may cause the horse to strike and bruise the region. 

Symptoms of lameness are not always present. A high splint 
involving the articulation between the lower row of carpal, splint 
and cannon bones may be considered an unsoundness, because of 
the persistent character of the lameness.- The animal may show 
little or no lameness when walked, but if moved at a trot, espe- 
cially over a hard roadway, it may show marked lameness. The 
local inflammation is characterized by a small swelling lying 
along the splint bone, that feels hot and may pit on pressure. 
After a time the inflammation disappears and is replaced by a 
hard, bony enlargement. When this occurs the lameness dis- 
appears. 

The preventive treatment consists in keeping the feet of 
young horses in proper balance by frequent trimming and proper 
shoeing. This attention is very necessary in young colts that 
are running in pasture. It is very advisable to rest the animal 
during the period of inflammation. Cold bandages should be 
applied. As soon as the inflammation has subsided mild counter- 
irritants and absorbents may be used. In case the lameness 
persists, more severe counterirritation is indicated. 

Inflammation of the Flexor Tendons of the Digit. — The 
large tendons posterior to the foot and the suspensory ligament 
that separates them from the cannon bone frequently become 
inflamed. Sometimes complete rupture of one or more of these 
structures occurs. The lighter breeds of horses are the most 
frequent sufferers. Because of the greater strain thrown on 



154 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

the tendons of the forefeet, inflammation of these tendons is 
far more common than it is in the hindfoot. Diseased conditions 
of the hind tendons are nsually due to other causes than strain. 

The following predisposing and accidental causes should be 
considered: Weak flexor-tendons and heavy bodies predispose 
animals to inflanmiation of the tendons and suspensory ligament ; 
quality, not size, is the factor to consider when judging the 
streng-th of a tendon ; long, slender pasterns increase the strain 
on these structures, and this mechanical strain is further in- 
creased by low heels and long toes ; the character of the work and 
the condition of the road that the animal travels over are im- 
portant factors to consider; trotting and running horses more 
often suffer from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft 
horses; travelling at a high rate of speed over an uneven road, 
slipping and catching the foot in a rut or car track, are common 
causes ; bruises and wounds may result in the tendons becoming 
inflamed ; inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons 
as well sometimes occurs in influenza. 

Lameness is a prominent symptom. The pastern is held in 
a more upright position than normal. When the animal is stand- 
ing, the foot is rested on the toe, and it may take advantage of 
any uneven place on which to rest the heel. In severe strains the 
local symptoms are quite prominent. The tendons may be hot 
and swollen. Pressure may cause the animal jjain. In chronic 
tendinitis the tendon may be thickened and rough or knotty. 
Pain is not a prominent symptom in this class of cases. Shorten- 
ing of the inflamed tendon may occur, causing the animal to 
knuckle over. Kupture of one or more of the tendons and the 
suspensory ligament can be recognized by the abnormal exten- 
sion of the pastern. If the ruptured tendon heals, it always 
results in a thickening at the point of the rupture that gives the 
tendons a bowed appearance. This is termed bowed-tendon. 

The lameness resulting from an inflammation of tendons 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 155 

resembles that resulting from strains and injuries to the fetlock 
joint, especially in the region of the sesamoid hones. 

Inflammation of the sesamoid bones differs slightly from the 
former. Pressure over the posterior region of the fetlock may 
cause the animal pain. The lameness shows a tendency to dis- 
appear with rest and reappear when the animal is again worked. 
Lameness is most prominent in some cases when the animal is 
first moved out. There may be a lack of local symptoms, such 
as heat and swelling. It is not uncommon for a bony enlarge- 
ment to form on the sesamoid bone after a few months or a year. 

The following treatment is recommended. Horses that have 
a poor quality of tendon and weak fetlocks and pasterns should 
not be used for breeding purposes. Careful driving would pre- 
vent a large percentage of injuries to tendons. The most im- 
portant treatment for all injuries due to strains is rest. In all 
cases of severe strain to the structures in this region, it is very 
advisable to apply a plaster bandage. This should be left on for 
at least two weeks. When the acute inflammation has subsided, 
counterirritants may be applied. Either cold or hot appli- 
cations are recommended. Cold applications are to be preferred 
at the beginning of the inflammation. Covering the tendons with 
a cold bandage, or with a heavy layer of antiphlogistin, is 
recommended. The horse should not be worked until after the 
tendons have had an opportunity to completely recover from the 
inflammation. 

Contracted Tendons, Knuckling-over. — Xew-born foals are 
sometimes unable to stand on their front feet because of the 
excessive knuckling-over. The colt may walk on the front of 
the pastern and fetlock. This sometimes results in severe injury 
to the skin and the underlying tissues. 

Knuckling-over in the mature horse is not always due to 
contracted tendons. It may occur as a symptom of inflammation 
of the flexor tendons, ligaments of the fetlock joint and the 



156 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

articulation as well. It may be noticed in animals that have 
ring-bone, or coffin-joint lameness. 

The most common cause for this unsoundness is inflammation 
of the muscles and tendons of the flexors of the digit. As a 
result of long standing or severe inflammation, shortening of 
these structures occurs in consequence of the contraction of the 
inflammatory or cicatricial tissue. Knuckling-over in the new- 
born colt is commonly caused by a weakness or lack of innervation 
of the extensor muscle of the digit. Judging from the quick 
recovery that usually occurs, other causes for this condition 
are seldom present. 

The treatment recommended for the new-born colt is sup- 
porting the fetlock with a light plaster bandage. This should 
be ajDplied very soon after birth in order to prevent bruising of 
the fetlock. A light cheese-cloth bandage should be applied to 
the limb from the hoof to the knee. The colt is laid on its side, 
the toe extended as much as possible, and the plaster bandage 
applied. This should be removed in about one week and fresh 
bandages applied. In about two weeks the young animal is 
usually able to walk on the toe. As soon as it is able to do this 
a bandage is unnecessary. It is not advisable to turn the colt 
outside if there is any chance for the bandages to become wet. 

Knuckling-over due to faulty conformation is difficult to 
correct. Light work and careful shoeing are the most valuable 
preventive measures in young horses. Sprains and injuries to 
the region of the fetlock should receive the necessary treatment. 
The treatment for contracted tendon is largely surgical and con- 
sists in sectioning it. 

Injuries Caused by Interfering. — Horses that have faulty 
action may strike the opposite fetlock with the moving foot, the 
inside of the opposite limb in the region of the knee, and the 
quarters of the front foot with the shoe of the hindfoot. It is 
very common for horses to " brush " the inside of the hind fetlock 
with the opposite foot when trotting, especially if tired. Inter- 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 157 

fering in the front feet is less common. Striking the inside of 
the region of the knee with the opposite foot or " speedy cutting " 
occurs in driving and speed horses. Both of the latter forms of 
interfering may be considered nnsoundnesses. 

The most common cause of interfering is faulty conforma- 
tion, such as narrowness of the chest or pelvis, faulty confor- 
mation of the limbs and irregularity in the action of the joints. 
Shoeing and the condition of the feet are also important factors. 
Animals that have a narrow chest or pelvis interfere because the 
legs are placed too closely together. Turning in of the knees or 
" knock-kneed," winging in or out of the feet, or any other 
defective conformation of the limbs that tends to prevent the 
animal from moving the feet in line, lead to serious interfering. 
A wide-spreading hoof, an unbalanced condition of the foot and 
improper fitting of the shoes are common causes for interfering 
in horses that would otherwise move the feet in line. Debility 
from disease and overwork may cause the animal to interfere tem- 
porarily. An unbalanced gait and shortness of the body are the 
common causes for injuries to the quarters. 

All degrees of injury to the part struck by the shoe or wall 
of the foot may be noted. Horses that interfere lightly, wear 
the hair off and produce slight abrasions of the skin on the inside 
of the fetlock. Sometimes the skin is bruised, inflamed or 
scarred. Injuries to the inside of the knee and quarter are the 
most serious. Lameness, inflammation of the periosteum and 
bony enlargement may result from " speedy cutting." Deep 
wounds in the region of the heel or quarter may occur when a 
horse strikes this part with the shoe of the hindfoot in moving 
at a high rate of speed. 

The treatment is largely preventive. ISTo doubt many cases 
of interfering could be prevented by careful training and balanc- 
ing of the foot when the animal is growing and developing. The 
feet of colts should be trimmed every three or four weeks. Inter- 
fering in the hindfeet may be stopped by noting the character 



158 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 




of the animal's gait and the portion of the wall that strikes the 
part, and by practising intelligent methods of shoeing. Slight 
injnries should be treated by the application of antiseptic pow- 
ders. The treatment for injuries to the periosteum is the same 
as that recommended for splints. As a last resort boots and 
button rings may be used for the purpose of preventing serious 
injury to that part which is struck by the foot. 

Ring-bone. — Chronic in- 
flammation of the articula- 
tion between the first and sec- 
ond bones of the digit is 
termed ring-bone (Fig. 35). 
Not all ring-bones involve the 
articular surfaces. The peri- 
articular, or false ring-bone, is 
a chronic inflammation of the 
bone near the articular sur- 
face. The bony enlargement 
varies in size. It may form a 
ring encircling the part, or it 
may be limited to the lateral 
surface of the joint. The 
bony enlargement may be so 
small as to be detected only 
by a careful examination. 
Ring-bone may occur on any 
of the feet, but it is said to be more common in the front feet. 
The predisposing cause of ring-bone is faulty conformation. 
Long, weak pasterns that are predisposed to strains, upright 
pasterns, especially if small, and exposed to concussion and jar- 
ring, and crooked feet that distribute the weight on the part 
irregTilarly are important factors in the production of ring-bones. 
The external causes are sprains or any injury to the region. 
Lameness is nearly always present. The degree of lameness 




— C 



Fig. 35. — (A) Bones of digit, showing (C) 
side bones, and (D) ring-bones, and (B) nor- 
mal bones of digit. 



DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB 159 

varies, and does not depend altogether on the size of the bony 
enlargement. Large ring-bones interfere with the movement of 
the tendon. Lameness is most pronounced when weight is thrown 
on one foot, the later phase of the step being shortened and the 
pastern more upright. Some cases improve with rest, but the 
lameness returns when the animal is given hard work. 

The preventive treatment consists in giving the necessary 
attention to the feet of young animals, by trimming the wall fre- 
quently and keeping the feet in balance and the careful selection 
of breeding stock. Resting the animal, keeping the foot that has 
the ring-bone on it in proper balance and counterirritation by 
means of blisters and cautery (searing) are important lines of 
treatment. Shortening the toe and raising the heel, if necessary, 
greatly relieves the lameness in some cases. Sectioning the sen- 
sory nerves that go to the part should not be practised, unless in 
exceptional cases. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the causes of shoulder lameness; give the treatment. 

2. Describe capped elbow; give the treatment. 

3. What is " broken knee " ? 

4. What are " wind-galls " and " road-puffs " ? 

5. Give the cause and treatment of sprung-knee. 

6. Give the cause and treatment of splints. 

7. What class of horses most commonly have strained tendons? Give the 

causes and treatment of this form of lameness. 

8. Give the treatment of contracted tendons in the new-born colt. 

9. Give the causes for interfering. 

10. What are the different forms of ring-bone? Give the causes and treat- 
ment of ring-bone. 



CHAPTER XVII 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 

General Discussion.— The foot of tlie horse as generally 
spoken of, includes the hoof and the structures that are enclosed 
by it (Fig. 3G). It may he divided into three parts, the insensi- 
tive and sensitive structures and 
the bony core. The insensitive 
foot or hoof is divided into wall, 
sole, frog and bars. The sensitive 
foot is divided into vascular tissue 
and elastic apparatus. The vascu- 
lar tissue is in turn divided into 
coronary cushion, laminfc and vel- 
vety tissue. The elastic apparatus 
is divided into plantar cushion and 
fibro-cartilages. The hoiiy core is 
formed by the navicular and third 
digital bones. The hoof and vascu- 
lar tissue in turn enclose the 
elastic apparatus and bony core. 

The wall forms that portion 
of the hoof seen when the foot rests 
on the ground (Fig. 37). It is 

Fia. 36.-photograph of a model of covercd by E thiu layer of homy 
the foot: (D) wall; (F) sensitive tissue; tissue, the peHpole, that coats ovcr 

((j) plantar cushion, inferior dark per- ' i i ■- 

tion. sole and frog; (A) lateral carti- th© Wall and assists lu preventing 

lage; and (N) pedal bone. ^ _ ^ ^^ ^ 

its drying out. On lifting the foot 
and examining its inferior surface, it is noticed that the wall at 
the heels is inflected under the foot and in a forward direction. 
This portion of the wall is termed the bars. Within the bearing 
margin of the wall and in front of the bars is a thick, concave, 
horny plate that forms the sole. At the heels and betv/een the 
160 




DISEASES OF THE FOOT 



161 



bars is a wedge-shaped mass of rather soft horny tissue that 
projects forward into the sole. This is the foot pad or horny 
frog. It is divided into two lateral portions by a medium cleft. 

The coronary cushion projects into the upper border of 
the wall. It is covered with vascular papilla which secrete the 
horny fibres that form the wall. The vascular lamince are leaf- 
like projections, the sides of which are covered by secondary 
leaves. Horny lamhue, arranged the same as vascular laminje, 
line the wall. These t^vo 
structures are so firmly 
united that it is impossible 
to tear them apart without 
destroying the tissue. The 
velvety tissue covers all of 
the inferior surface of the 
foot, with the exception of 
the bars. As the name indi- 
cates, its surface is covered 
by vascular papilla? that re- 
semble the ply on velvet. It 
is firmly united to the horny 
sole which it secretes. 

The lateral cartilages are 
attached to the posterior 
angles of the pedal bone. They are flattened from side to side, 
and the portion that projects above the coronary cushion may 
be felt by pressing on tlie skin that covers it. The iilantar 
cushion is a wedge-shaped piece of tissue formed by interlacing 
connective-tissue fibres and fat. It is limited on each side by the 
lateral cartilages. Its inferior face is moulded to the frog. 

The bony core formed by the last bone of the digit and the 

coffin bone was described briefly with the other foot bones. A 

very important bursa, because it is so frequently inflamed in 

coffin-joint lameness, facilitates the gliding of the flexor tendon 

11 




Fig. 37. — Foot showing neglect in trim- 
ming wall. 



162 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES \ 

over the navicular bone before it becomes attached to the inferior 
face of the pedal or digital bone. 

Side-bones. — This is a chronic inflammation of the lateral 
cartilages of the foot that results in their ossification (Fig. 38). 
This unsoundness is common in heavy horses, especially if 
worked on city streets. The inflammation affects the cartilages 
of the front feet, rarely those of the hindfeet. 

The hereditary tendency toward the development of side- 
bones is an important predisposing factor. Tt is not uncommon 



-. V 





Fig. 3S. — A very large side bone. 

to meet with this unsoundness in young horses that have never 
been worked. Low, weak heels, flat, spreading feet, or any 
other faulty conformation of the foot are predisposing factors. 

The character of the work is an important exciting cause. 
Continuous work over paved streets, especially if the horse is 
shod with high-heeled shoes, increases the shock received by the 
elastic apparatus of the foot. This produces more or less irri- 
tation to the lateral cartilages, which may result in their com- 
plete ossification. Punctured wounds in the regions of the carti- 
lage may cause it to become inflamed and changed to bone. 

The following symptoms may be noted. Farm horses that 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 163 

have side-bones seldom show lameness. This is because they 
are worked on soft ground and not on a hard street or road. 
Driving and dray horses may step short with the front feet, or 
show a stilty action. This may disappear with exercise. The 
lameness is sometimes marked. The local diseased changes are 
the greatest help in the recognition of side-bones. Horses should 
not be passed as sound without making a careful examination of 
the lateral cartilages. This examination is made by pressure 
over the region of the cartilage with the thumb or fingers. This 
is for the purpose of testing its elasticity. If it feels rigid 
and rough, the cartilaginous tissue has been replaced by bony 
tissue, and the animal should be classed as unsound. 

The treatment is largely preventive. Horses with side-bones 
should not be bred. It is not advisable to use horses with side- 
bones on the road or city streets. Shoeing with rubber pads may 
help in overcoming the concussion and relieve the lameness. 
Sectioning the sensory nerves going to this portion of the foot is 
advisable in driving horses. Rest and counterirritation relieve 
the lameness for a short time. 

Navicular Disease. — In navicular disease the bursa, flexor 
tendon, and navicular bone may become chronically inflamed. 
Because of the seat of the lameness, it is commonly known as 
" cofiin-joint " lameness. This disease affects standard and 
thoroughbred horses more often than it does the coarser breeds. 
One or both front feet may be affected (Fig. 39). 

Hereditary causes are largely responsible for navicular dis- 
ease. The tendency toward this disease probably depends on 
such peculiarities of conformation as narrow, weak, high heels, 
long pasterns and too long a toe. The character of the work is 
an important factor. Hurried, rapid movements throw consider- 
able strain on the navicular region, increasing the danger from 
injury. This is, no doubt, one reason for " coffin-joint " lame- 
ness being more common in driving and speed horses than in 
slow-going work animals. Rheumatic inflammation, bad shoeing 



164 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GI'^NEliAL DISEASES 



and punctured wounds in the rcij;i(jn of tlio Inirsa many c.iiuso it. 
The first si/mplo?}! usually notcid is a tendency to stunihic. 
When standing in the stal)]c, tlie aninuil "points" or rests tlie 
diseased foot. Sometimes it rests the heel of the lame foot on 
the wall of the opposite foot. Tf both feet are affected, the animal 
may rest them alternately, or take a position witli hoth f(iot well 




-\ 



Fig. 39. — A case of navicular di.scasc involving one; front, foot. The di.seaHcd foot ia the 

smaller. 

in front of the normal position. The inflamed structures are so 
covered by other tissues that it is difficult to detect the local 
inflammation, or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure 
over the region. As the disease becomes more advanced, the 
lameness becomes permanent. Tlie limb is carried forward 
stiffly and rapidly and the animal stumbles when travelling over 
rough ground. In time, because of the little weight thrown on 
the posterior portion of the foot, the quarters may become higher, 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 



165 



contracted and more iiprii/Lt and tlio frog smaller. Tf one foot 
is diseased, it becomes smaller than the opposite foot. 

The following preventive measures may be recommended. 
We should not use animals having faulty conformation of the 
feet for breeding, because the offspring of such indivirlnals 
have an inherent tendency toward navicular and other foot dis- 
eases. Animals that have " coffin-joint " lameness should be 




Fig. 40. — An improperly shod foot; note the manaer in which the wall is cut away at the toe 

allowed to run in pasture as much as possible, because natural 
conditions help to keep down the inflammation and soreness and 
promote a more healthy condition of the foot. In shoeing the 
horse it is best to shorten the toe and raise the heel. It is advisa- 
ble in the more favorable cases to cut the sensory nerves of the 
foot. This operation destroys the sensation in the foot, and 
should not be performed on feet with weak heels, or that are 
wide or spreading. 

Contracted Quarters. — TJii-: r-f;)iflitio)i of the feet is eharac- 



166 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

terized by the foot beeoniiiig narrow in its posterior portion. One 
or both of the quarters may be affected. It is principally 
observed in the forefeet. 

The causes of contraction of the foot may be classed as 
predisposing, secondary and exciting. It may accompany chronic 
diseases of the foot, such as navicular disease and side-bones. 
Weak heels is the principal predisposing factor. Any condition 
that tends to prevent the hoof from taking up moisture, or causes 
it to lose moisture, may cause the horn to lose flexibility and 
contract. This is one of the reasons why horses that are worked 
continuously in cities, or used for driving, frequently develop 
contracted feet. Ill-fitting shoes, excessive rasping of the wall 
and bars, and allowing the shoes to stay on the foot for too long 
a time are responsible to a very large degree for this disorder 
of the foot (Fig. 40). 

The following local sympto7ns may occur: The wall of the 
foot at the quarters may appear drawn in at its superior or 
inferior portion. Sometimes one or both quarters are perpen- 
dicular, or nearly so. The foot then appears too narrow at the 
heel, too elongated Jind less rounded than normal. The changes 
in the appearance of the inferior surface of the hoof vary. 
The changes here may be so slight that they are not noticed. 
In well advanced and neglected cases the arch of the sole is 
increased, the frog is narrow and atrophied and the bars high 
and perpendicular. Corns may accompany the contraction. 
The foot moy feel feverish. The animal may manifest the pain 
in the feet when standing at rest by pointing and changing their 
position. Wlien lameness is present, it may resemble that occur- 
ring in inflammation of lateral cartilages and navicular disease. 

Preventive treatment is of the greatest importance. This 
consists in giving the feet an opportunity to take up moisture 
when they are exposed to abnormal conditions and become fever- 
ish. Under such conditions, it is advisable to occasionally 
remove the shoes and turn the animal into a pasture or lot. It 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 167 

is best to do this in the fall or winter when the ground is wet. 
If this can not be practised, the shoes should be removed and 
a poultice of ground flaxseed and bran, equal parts, applied to 
the feet for a period of eight or ten hours, daily for a week 
or two. A plank trough six inches deep, two feet wide and as 
long as the stall is wide may be filled with a stiff clay, and the 
horse made to stand with its front feet in the clay bath for ten 
or twelve hours daily. When grooming the horse, the foot should 
be cleaned with a foot-hook and washed with clean water. Hoof 
ointments should be avoided so far as possible. The importance 
of fitting the shoe to the foot, avoiding the too free use of the 
rasp and hoof knife and resetting or changing the shoe when 
necessary can not be overestimated. Shoeing the animal with a 
special shoe is sometimes necessary. It is not advisable to 
attempt the forcible expansion of the quarters. Lowering the 
heels by careful trimming of the wall and sole and permitting 
frog pressure may be all the special attention required. 

Sand-crack. — A fissure in the wall of the foot running in the 
same direction as the horny fibres, or a seam in the wall resulting 
from the healing of the fissure is termed sand-crack. The posi- 
tion and extent of the fissure or seam vary. It may involve 
the wall of the toe (toe-crack) (Fig. 41) or quarter (quarter- 
crack) (Fig. 42). It is superficial or deep, according to the 
thickness of the wall involved ; complete or incomplete, depend- 
ing on whether it extends from the bearing margin of the wall 
to the coronary band or only a portion of the distance ; simple, 
when the horny tissue only is involved ; and complicated, when 
the sensitive tissue beneath becomes injured and inflamed. 
Cracks of long standing usually have thick, rough margins. 

The causes of this unsoundness are poor quality of horn, 
improper care and injuries. Sand-cracks commonly occur in 
hoofs that are dry and brittle and have thin walls. In young 
horses incomplete cracks due to the wall becoming long and 
breaking off in large pieces are common. Unequal distribution 



168 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



of weight, the result of unskilled shoeing, or any other condition 
that may cause the foot to become unbalanced, using the foot 
rasp too freely, and such diseases as quittor, corns and con- 
tracted quarters subject the animal to this form of unsoundness. 
Any injury to the coronary cushion that secretes the fibres of the 
horny wall may result in either toe- or quarter-crack. Treads and 
barb-wire cuts are common injuries to the region of the coronet. 
The preventive treatment consists in preserving a healthy 
condition of the horn by giving the foot the necessary care and 
attention in the way of proper trimming and shoeing, and pro- 





FiG. 41. — (A) Toe-craoks. 



Fig. 42. — Quarter-crack caused by barb- 
wire cut. 



viding it with the necessary moisture by means of foot-baths, 
wet clay and poultices. Quarter-cracks respond to treatment 
more quickly than toe-cracks. The treatment is practically the 
same for both. This consists in preventing motion in the margins 
of the fissure so far as possible. 

The treatment for fissures in the region of the toe and quarter 
is as follows: The wall should be cut away along the margins 
of the crack until it is quite thin; and extra nail holes should 
be made in the shoe, and a nail driven into the bearing margin 
of the wall a little to each side of the fissure. The wall at the 
toe should be shortened and the toe of the shoe rolled if the 
animal's work permits the use of this kind of a shoe. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 169 

The margins of a quarter-crack and the wall just posterior 
and below it should be cut away until quite thin. The bearing 
margin should then be trimmed so that it does not rest on the 
shoe. A bar shoe that does not press on the frog may be used. 
Light blisters to the region of the coronet help in stimulating 
the growth of the horn. Rest is advisable. 

Corns. — This term is applied to injuries to the foot caused 
by bruises or continuous pressure to the posterior portion of the 
sole. This condition is common in the forefeet. 

The predisposing causes are faulty conformation that favors 
pressure from the shoe on the sole between the bars and wall and 
weak heels. Corns are commonly met with in feet having con- 
tracted quarters. The principal external causes are wrong- 
methods of shoeing and allowing the shoes to remain on the feet 
for too long a period. 

A common symptom of corns is lameness. In order to relieve 
the pressure over the inflamed part, the animal stands with the 
foot slightly flexed at the fetlock. The lameness is not charac- 
teristic. It is only by a local examination of the foot, made 
by pressing on- the sole or cutting away the horn, that we are 
able to form a positive diagnosis. 

We describe the diseased changes by using the terms dry, 
moist and suppurative corns. In the dry corn we find the horn 
stained and infiltrated with blood. In the moist corn the hoof 
may be colored the same as in the former, but in addition there 
is a space between the vascular and horny tissue that is filled 
with a serous-like fluid. If this collection of fluid becomes in- 
fected with pus organisms and is changed to pus, it is then 
termed a suppurative corn. Sometimes the pus pushes its way 
upward and backward between the sensitive laminae and the 
wall, and makes its appearance at the margin of the coronary 
band in the region of the quarters or heels. This usually occurs 
when the tissues beneath the horny frog become bruised or the 
sensitive tissue pricked by a nail. It is commonly termed 



170 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

" gravelled." Pus rarely breaks through the thick horny tissue, 
but follows the wall and breaks through the skin where it meets 
with the least resistance. Corns may be considered a serious 
unsoundness in driving horses. 

The treatment is largely preventive. Trimming the foot 
and fitting the shoe properly are important preventive measures. 
The practice of cutting away the bars and sole or " opening up 
the heels," as it is commonly termed, should be condemned. 
This method of trimming the foot instead of preventing corns 
is a very common factor in producing them. The shoe should 
not be too short or too narrow. It should follow the outline of the 
wall and rest evenly on its bearing margin. If this is practised, 
weakening the wall by cutting off that portion allowed to project 
beyond the shoe is unnecessary. Feet that have low heels and 
large, prominent frogs should be shod \\\\h shoes thick at the 
heels. The best line of treatment for a horse that is subject to 
corns is to remove the shoes and allow the animal to run in a 
pasture. If this is impossible, poulticing the feet or standing 
the animal in moist clay will help in relieving the soreness. 
Excessive cutting away of the horny sole is contra-indicated. Sup- 
purative corns should be given proper drainage and treatment. 

Laminitis, " Founder." — This is an inflammation of the 
sensitive or vascular stricture of the foot. The inflammation 
may be acute, subacute or chronic. Stockmen frequently use a 
classification for laminitis based on the causes. Feed, road and 
water founder are common terms used in speaking of this dis- 
ease. The inflammation is usually limited to the front feet. 

The causes of laminitis are overfeeding, sudden changes in 
the feed, drinking a large quantity of water when the animal is 
overheated, overexertion, exhaustion and chilling of the body by 
standing the animal in a cold draft. It may be associated 
with such diseases as rheumatism, influenza and colic. 

The symptoms vary in the different forms of the disease. 
Pain is the most characteristic symptom. The sensitive or vas- 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 171 

cular structure of the foot has an abundant supply of sensory 
nerves, and, as it is situated between the hoof and the bony core, 
the pressure and pain resulting from the inflammation are severe. 

In the acute form general symptoms are manifested. The 
appetite is impaired, the body temperature elevated and the pulse 
beats and respirations quickened. If the inflammation is severe, 
the animal prefers to lie down. This is especially true if all four 
feet are inflamed. In most cases the horse stands with the 
forefeet well forward and the hind feet in front of their normal 
position and under the body. The affected feet are feverish and 
very sensitive to jarring or pressure. Moving about increases 
the pain in the feet, and it may be very difiicult to make the 
animal step about the stall. 

In the subacute form the symptoms are less severe. The 
irregularity in the gait is especially noticeable when the animal 
is turned quickly. The local symptoms are less marked than 
in the acute form and the general symptoms may be absent. 

The chronic form is characterized by changes in the shape 
and appearance of the hoofs (Fig. 43). The wall shows prom- 
inent ridges or rings, the toe may be concave, thick and long and 
the sole less arched than usual, or convex. The degree of lame- 
ness varies. It is more noticeable when the horse is moved over 
a hard roadway than if moved over soft ground. One attack of 
laminitis may predispose the animal to a second attack. 

The prognosis depends on the character of the inflammation 
and the promptness and thoroughness of the treatment. Acute 
laminitis may respond to prompt, careful treatment in from 
ten to fourteen days. Subacute laminitis responds readily to 
treatment. The prognosis is least favorable in the chronic form. 

The preventive treatment is very important. Dietetic causes 
are responsible for a large percentage of the cases of this disease. 
Horses that are accustomed to being fed and watered at irregular 
periods and after severe or unusual exercise seem to be able to 
stand this treatment better than animals that are more carefully 



172 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



cared for, but even tins class of animals do not always escape 
injury. Stockmen should realize the danger of producing an 
inflammation of the feet by feeding grain and giving cold water 
to horses immediately after severe exercise. Overfeeding should 
also be avoided. Careful nursing may prevent the occurrence of 
laminitis as a complication of other diseases. 





Fig. 43. — This foot shows the changes in shape and appearance of wall and sole occurring 

in chronic laminitis. 

The treatment of the inflammation is as follows : The removal 
of the shoes and the necessary trimming of the foot should be 
practised early in the inflammation; the horse should be placed 
in a roomy box-stall that is well bedded with cut straw ; during 
the cool weather it may be necessary to blanket the animal ; 
if the weather is hot and the flies annoy the patient, the stall 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT 173 

should be darkened; in serious cases, and when the animal is 
heavy, it may be advisable to use a sling ; hot water fomentations 
are to be preferred ; the patient may be stood in a tub of hot 
wate?^ or heavy woollen bandages that have been dipped in hot 
w^ater and wrung out as dry as possible may be applied to the 
feet ; the temperature of the water should be no hotter than 
can be comfortably borne with the hands ; the results of this treat- 
ment depend on the faithfulness with which it is carried out ; 
a poultice of ground flaxseed should be applied to the foot at 
night, or during the interval between the foot-baths. This treat- 
ment may be continued until the acute inflammation has subsided. 

If the animal is inclined to eat, it should be fed very little 
roughness and grain. Soft feeds are to be preferred, and one 
quart of linseed oil given as a physic. After a period of from 
ten days to three weeks, depending on the tenderness of the feet, 
the wall at the toe should be shortened, the sole trimmed if 
necessary, flat shoes rolled at the toe placed on the feet, and 
the animal allowed to exercise a short time each day in a lot or 
pasture. As the hoof grows rapidly, it is necessary to trim it 
carefully every three or four weeks and replace the shoes. The 
wall at the toe should be kept short, but excessive thinning of the 
sole should be avoided. 

The same line of treatment as recommended for the horse 
may be used for laminitis in cattle. If marked diseased changes 
occur in the feet, it is not advisable to attempt the treatment 
of chronic laminitis, unless it is in valuable breeding animals. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a general description of the foot. 

2. State the nature and causes of side-bones. 

3. What are the causes of navicular disease? Give symptoms and treatment 

4. \Vliat are corns? Give the treatment. 

5. Give the nature and treatment of quarter- and toe-cracks. 

6. Give the symptoms and causes of laminitis. 

7. Give lines of treatment to be followed in the different forms of laminitis. 

8. How may laminitis be prevented? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 

Fracture of the Ileum, " Hipped." — Fracture of the angle 
and neck of the ileum may be classed among the common fractures 
in horses and cattle. Fractures involving other parts of the 
pelvic bones are less common. Such fractures are due to acci- 
dental causes, as striking the point of the haunch on the door 
frame when hurrying through a narrow doorway and falling on 
frozen ground. 

Fractures of the external angle of the ileum or point of 
haunch are usually followed by disj^lacement of the fractured 
portion. The same is true of fractures of the neck of the ileum. 
The result is a deformity of the quarter. 

In making an examination of these parts the examiner should 
see that the horse is standing squarely on its feet, and then 
compare the conformation of the two quarters. Fractures of 
either the external angle or the neck of the ileum cause the quar- 
ter to appear narrow and low. A close examination may enable 
the examiner to differentiate between the two fractures. Frac- 
tures of the neck of the ileum can be recognized by manipulating 
the part through the walls of the rectum or vagina. 

The degree of lameness may vary. In some cases there may 
be no lameness when the animal walks, but a slight degree of 
lameness may be noticed when it trots. For several weeks after 
the injury the horse may be unable to use the limb, but it may 
eventually make nearly a complete recovery. 

Atrophy of the muscles of the hip or quarter (Fig. 44) 
should not be mistaken for fractures of the ileum. This con- 
dition involves the heavy gluteal muscles and may occur as a 
complication of azoturia, or a lameness of the hind limb that 
is usually due to a spavin. 
174 



DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 



175 



It is very seldom necessary to give fractures of the ileum 
any special care. If the animal is very lame, it should be given 
a narrow stall, and placed in a sling until it can support its 
weight on the limb. The same treatment is indicated in cattle. 
It is not advisable to breed a mare that has had the ileum frac- 
tured. The bony enlargement that results from the union of the 
broken ends of the bone may interfere with the passage of the 
foetus through the pelvic cavity and cause difficult parturition. 

Luxation of the Patella, " Stifle Out." — This is a common 
accident in horses and mules. 
Young, immature animals are 
more prone to displacement of 
the patella than when mature. 
The displacement is usually up- 
ward or outward. Outward dis- 
placement is comparatively rare. 

The causes of " stifle out " 
may be described as follows : 
The patella or knee-cap rests on 
a pulley-like articular surface 
belonging to the inferior ex- 
tremity of the thigh-bone. The 
external lip of this articular sur- 
face is smaller than the internal 
lip. The patella is held in place from above by the heavy 
muscles of the anterior region of the thigh, and from below, by 
straight ligaments that attach it to the leg-bone. If the retaining 
structures mentioned become relaxed, the patella may, when 
the limb is extended, become so displaced as to rest on the 
superior portion of the external lip. Laxness of the muscles and 
ligaments in young animals is a predisposing factor. Hard 
work that tires the muscles and causes them to become relaxed, 
strains, unusual movements, as kicking in the stable and slip- 
ping, may cause this accident. Congenital displacement results 




Fig. 44.- 



Atrophy of the muscles of the 
quarter. 



176 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

from imperfect development of the external lip of the trochlea. 
Such a deformity subjects the animal to frequent luxations. 

The symptoms may vary. The displacement may he first 
noticed when the horse is backed out of the stall or turned 
quickly. A slight '^ hitch " in the movement of the limb is noted, 
that is followed by more noticeable flexion of the hock than 
normal. In case the luxation is more permanent, the horse 
stands quietly with the affected leg held stiffly and extended 
backward. When made to move forward, it hops on the well leg 
and carries the affected one, or drags it on the toe. If both limbs 
are affected, the animal is unable to move. The inability to 
move the limb is due to the patella resting on the external lip 
of the pulley surface, and a locking of the stifle- and hock-joint. 

This accident is annoying, and in case the horse is subject 
to it should be considered an unsoundness. 

The following treatment may be recommended : The luxation 
may be reduced in the large majority of cases by backing or 
turning the animal. If this does not reduce the displacement, 
a collar should be placed on the animal, and a hobble strap 
fastened to the pastern of the involved limb. One end of a long 
rope is tied to the collar, passed backward between the front 
limbs, through a ring in the hobble and back over the outside of 
the shoulder and under the collar. While an attendant pulls 
the limb a little forward with the rope, the operator takes hold 
of the foot and attempts to flex the limb, at the same time pushing 
inward on the patella. After reducing the luxation it is advisable 
to tie the rope to the collar, so that the limb is carried forward. 
This prevents the animal from throwing weight on the foot. 
It may be advisable to tie the animal so that it can not lie down, 
if the foot is to be left hobbled for a few days. A fly blister 
should be applied to the front and outside of the stifle and the 
application repeated in two or three weeks. 

String-halt. — This term is applied to a peculiar involuntary 
movement of one or both hind limbs that is characterized by a 



DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 



177 



sudden, purposeless flexion of the hock-joint (Fig. 45). Horses 
that are slightly affected may show this movement of the hind 
limbs when first exercised. Other horses may be " string-halted " 
when backed, turned, walked, or trotted, and fail to drive out of 
it. The cause of true '' string-halt " is not known. 

The treatment recommended is' surgical. This consists in 




Fig. 45.— String-halt. 

cutting the tendon of the peroneus muscle. The seat of the 
operation is a little below the hock and on the external face of 
the cannon. 

Spavin. — A spavin is a chronic inflammation of the articular 
faces of the hock bones, ligaments and synovial membranes. The 
inflammation may result in the formation of a bony enlargement 
on the inner surface of the region, and a union between the small 
bones forming the lower portion of the hock, and the upper 
extremities of cannon and lower hock bones (Figs. 46 and 47). 
12 



178 



NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 




Fig. 46. — A large bone spavin. 



The predisposing causes 
are of the greatest impor- 
tance. A spavin is one 
of the unsoundnesses of 
horses that may be trans- 
mitted to the offspring. 
Young colts that have 
heavy bodies and are fed 
a fattening ration are pre- 
disposed to it. Crooked 
hind limbs, small hocks 
and quarters that are 
heavily muscled are pre- 
disposing factors. The ex- 
ternal causes are strains 
caused by slipping, turn- 
ing quickly, rearing, pull- 
ing heavy loads and kicks. 
Horses three or four years 
of age if given work that 
favors hock strain, such as 
excavating cellars, may 
develop a spavin. 

The symptoms or lame- 
ness are more character- 
istic than in most diseases 
of the limb. At the very 
beginning of the inflam- 
mation, and sometimes for 
several months afterward, 
the lameness is intermit- 
tent and disappears with 
exercise. After a time it 
is permanent. It is char- 



DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 



179 



acterized by a stiffness of the hock. The extension of the 
hock is incomplete, the step is short and quick, the animal 
" goes on its toe " and the wall or shoe at the toe shows 





Fig. 47. — (A) Normal cannon bone and (B) cannon bone showing bony enlargement and 
lower hock bones united to superior extremity; this occurs in bone spavin. 

considerable wear. Because of the stiffness in the hock the 
animal raises the quarter when the limb is carried forward. 
Turning toward the well side may increase the lameness. 
The spavin test may be of value in diagnosing lameness. This 



180 



NON-SPECIP^IC OR GENERAL DISEASES 



consists in picking up the foot and holding the hock in a flexed 
position for a few minutes. The foot is then dropped to the 
ground and the animal moved ofl^ at a brisk trot. If the lameness 
is more marked, it indicates that the seat is in the region of the 
hock. This test is of greatest value in young animals. The 
bonj enlargement can usually be seen best if the examiner stands 
in front and to one side of the animal. The hock should be 
observed from directly behind as well. The hocks of both limbs 

should be compared, and the general 
conformations of the other joints as 
well. This may prevent the exam- 
iner from mistaking rough hocks for 
spavin enlargements or " a pair " of 
spavins for rough hocks. A bony 
enlargement does not always accom- 
pany the lameness, and a spavin 
may be present without the horse 
going noticeably lame. 

The prognosis is always uncertain 
and should be guided somewhat by 
the conformation of the limb, char- 
acter of the work required of the 
animal, position of the bony enlarge- 
; ■ ■ ^ ment and the degree of lameness. 

The size of the enlargement is 

I'l... JS. — Bug :^I.uvlIl.-. . -Ill 

changed very little by the treatment. 
Veterinarians report recoveries in from fifty to sixty per cent 
of the cases treated. 

The object of the treatment is to destroy the inflammation 
and bring about a union between the bones. The treatment 
recommended is counterirritation and rest. The most satisfac- 
tory method of counterirritation is firing followed by blistering. 
Following this treatment, the horse should be placed in a stall 
and given no exercise for a period of five or six weeks. It is 




DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 



181 



sometimes advisable to repeat the coimterirritation if the results 
of the first firing are unsatisfactory. 

Bog Spavin. — Bog spavin is an extensive distention of the 
capular ligament of the hock-joint by synovia (Fig. 48). It is 
generally due to chronic inflammation of the synovial membrane. 
This blemish or unsoundness 
is most common in young 
horses. Thorough pin (Fig. , 
49) involves the sheath of the ^ 
large tendon only. (Com- '. 
pare Figs. 48 and 49.) 

Certain conformations of 
the hock favor the develop- 
ment of bog spavin. This is 
especially true of upright and 
" fleshy " hocks. Hard work 
may cause the hocks to " fill " 
when followed by a brief 
period of rest. The common 
cause is a sprain due to slip- 
ping and pulling heavy loads. 

The following symptoms 
may be noted : Lameness is 
not a common symptom of bog 
spavin. If there is inflamma- 
tion present or the articula- 
tion is injured, lameness oc- 
curs. The soft swelling that 
characterizes the bog spavin 
is most prominent toward the inside and front of the region. In 
the upper portion or hollow of the hock, and on the inside and out- 
side, there may be a second enlargement. Smaller enlargements 
may be present in other regions. All of the swellings feel soft, and 
pressure on any one of them moves the fluid present in the others. 




Fig. 49. — Thorough pin. Note the relation 
of the enlargement to the tendon, and the free- 
dom of the hocks from bog spavin. 



182 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

The treatment is directed at the removal of the lameness. 
Acute inflammation resulting from spavin may be relieved by 
cold applications and rest. Chronic lameness should be given 
the same treatment as recommended for bone spavin. The 
enlargement can be successfully removed in growing colts by 
the repeated application of mild blisters. It may be necessary 
to continue the treatment for several months. The removal 
of the enlargement in adult horses by an operation is recom- 
mended. The greatest caution is required in performing this 
operation. 

Capped Hock. — All swellings on the point of the hock are 
termed '' capped hock." The swellings may be due to an injury 
to the skin and the subcutaneous tissue, or more important 
structures may be involved, as the subcutaneous bursa, the tendon, 
or the synovial bursa or sack. 

Capped hock is caused by the animal kicking in the stall 
or in harness, shipping in freight cars and lack of bedding in the 
stall. Unless the deeper structures are bruised and inflamed the 
animal shows no lameness. 

The character of the enlargement varies. When the injury 
is superficial, the swelling feels firm, or pits on pressure. Later 
it may become more firm and feel like a loose, thickened, fibrous 
cap for the hock. Soft, fiuctuating swellings are due to an 
inflammation of the bursa. Eecent injuries feel hot. 

The 'preventive treatment consists in hobbling the hind limbs 
of a horse that kicks in the stable. This is usually necessary only 
at night. It may be advisable to pad certain parts of the stall. 
Horses that are transported in cars should be protected against 
injuries during transit by the use of proper care and such 
arrangement of the animals in the car as may expose them to the 
least injury. Kecent injuries should be treated by the applica- 
tion of cold and rest. 

After the inflammation has subsided tincture of iodine or 
blisters may be applied. The treatment of bursal enlargements 



DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB 



183 



is surgical. This consists in opening the bursa, destroying the 
lining membrane of the cavity and treating the part daily until 
healed. The operation must be performed carefully, as there 
is danger of infection with irritating organisms. The animal 
should be given complete rest until the part is healed. Tincture 
of iodine may be applied to the enlargement that may remain 
after healing has occurred. This should be continued daily until 
the skin becomes noticeably irritated. The treatment may be 
repeated, if necessary, after an interval of two weeks. 




Curb. — This term is applied to all swellings on the posterior 
border of the hock (Fig. 50). Thickenings or enlargements in 
this region may involve a variety of structures. Thickening of 
the skin, tendons and sheath may occur. The large ligament 
that extends from the posterior border of the bone that forms 
the summit of the hock to the external splint bone, and acts as a 
stay for the point of the hock, is the structure usually involved 
in curb. 



184 NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES 

Faulty conformation is a jyredisposing cause. A narrow 
base weakens the liock at this point, and the extreme length of the 
bone that forms its sunmiit gives the powerful muscles attached to 
it greater leverage than in a well-conformed hock. This results 
in strain to the ligament at the posterior portion of the region. 

The exciting causes are strains resulting from jumping, 
slipping, rearing, heavy pulling and bruising of the part. 

In examining the hoch for curb it is necessary to stand to 
the side and note the profile of the posterior border. Excessive 
development of the head of the external splint bone should not 
be mistaken for curb. As viewed from the side, the posterior 
border of the hock should appear straight. 

The curb appears as a swelling on this straight line. It varies 
in size. A recent curb is usually hot and firm, or may feel soft if 
enlargement is formed by fluid, hard if formed by bone. Lame- 
ness seldom occurs, but if present, resembles spavin lameness. 

The preventive treatment consists in selecting for breeding, 
animals that have strong, straight hocks, and using the necessary 
care in handling and working horses. It is not uncommon for 
young horses at the time they are broken to harness to develop 
a curb. This may be prevented to a large degree by careful 
handling. At the beginning of the inflammation the application 
of cold and hand rubbing is indicated. After the inflammation 
has subsided tincture of iodine or blisters should be applied. 
Rest is a necessary part of the treatment early in the inflamma- 
tion. If the lameness does not respond to the above treatment, 
it should be treated the same as for bone spavin. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the different fractures of the ileum and give treatment. 

2. Describe string-lialt lameness and give treatment. 

3. Wliat is bone spavin ? Describe spavin lameness. 

4. Give the causes and treatment of bog spavin. 

5. Give the causes and treatment of capped hock. 

6. Give the causes and treatment of curb. 



PART III 

THE TEETH 



CHAPTER XIX 

DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS 

General Discussion. — The teeth are the passive organs of 
digestion. They are hard organs, implanted in the superior 
and inferior jaws in the form of a long and narrow arch that is 
open posteriorly. The free portions of the teeth project into 
the mouth, and present sharp or roughened table surfaces for the 




Fig. 51. — Head of young horse with bone cut away, and showing position and size of teeth. 

crushing and tearing of food. In solipeds and ruminants the 
arch is interrupted on each side by the inter-dental space or bars 
(Fig. 51). The teeth that form the middle and anterior por- 
tion of the arch are termed incisors (Fig. 52). Posterior to the 
incisors are the canines or tusks, and forming the arms of the 
arch are the molar teeth. Animals have t^vo sets of teeth, tem- 

187 



188 THE TEETH 

porary and permanent. The following table gives the number 
of the different kinds of temporary and permanent teeth. 

Temporary Teeth Permanent Teeth 

Incisors Canines Molars Incisors Canines Molars 

Solipeds 12 .. 12 12 4 24 

Ox 8 . . 12 8 24 

Sheep 8 .. 12 8 24 

Hog 12 . . 12 12 4 24 

The tusks or canine teeth are not always present in the 
female. Ruminants do not have upper incisor teeth. The tem- 
porary teeth are erupted either before or within a few days 
to a few months after birth. The eruption of the pennanent 
teeth and the replacement of the temporary teeth occur at 
different periods up to the age of four and one-half years (Fig. 
53). It is well to keep the following table of dentition in mind 
when examining the mouths of animals for the purpose of 
detenninins; their as-e.* 





Horses 


Cattle 


Hogs 


Teeth 


Temporary 


Permanent 


Temporary 


Perma- 
nent 


Temporary 


Perma- 
nent 


Incisors : 

Centrals 

First laterals.. . 
Second laterals. 


At birth 
4-6 wks. 


yrs. mos. 

2 6 

3 6 


At birth 

At birth 

5-12 days 

12-18 days 

At birth 
At birth 
At birth 


yrs. mos. 

1 8 

2 9 

3 6 

4 6 

2 6 
1 6 
3 
1 6 


At birth, 
or 3-4 
weeks 

8-12 wks. 

At birth 

7 weeks 
8-28 days 
8-28 days 


mos. 
12 

18 


Corners 

Molars: 

First 


6-9 mos. 

At birth 
At birth 
At birth 


4 6 

2 6 

2 6 

3 6 
10-12 

2 
4-5 


9 
5 


Second 

Third 


14 
13 


Fourth 


13 


Fifth 






2 




5 


Sixth 






2 6 




9 


Seventh . . 






18 






4-5 








9 













* This table is from dentition tables given in " Age of the Domestic 
Animals, " by Huidekoper. 



DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS 



189 



In determining the age of the different domestic animals 
by the development and appearance of the teeth, most of the 
attention is given to the lower incisor teeth. Up to the fifth 
year, the age of the horse or ox can 
be easily determined by the eruption 
and replacement of the incisors. 

At one year of age the colt has 
a fully developed set of temporary 
incisors. The ruminant's incisors 
at this age all show wear. 

The tiu 0-year-old colt shows a well- 
worn set of incisor teeth, and the 
ruminant at this age has replaced the 
nippers or centrals. 

The third, fourth and fifth years 
are indicated by the replacement of 
the temporary nippers, dividers and 
comers in the horse, and the first 
and second dividers and corner teeth 
in ruminants. 

In the horse the permanent nip- 
pers are full gro\^Ti and in wear at 
three years of age; the permanent 
dividers are full grown and in wear 
at four years of age; and the per- 
manent corners are full grown and in 
wear at five years of age. The table 
surfaces of the incisor teeth of a five- 
year-old horse show different degrees 
of wear. At this period in the ani- 
mal's age, the nippers have been in wear two years, the dividers 
one year, and the corners are beginning to show wear. In rumi- 
nants, all of the chisel-shaped table surfaces of the incisors show 
considerable wear when the animal is five years old 




Fig. 52. — Longitudinal section 
of incisor tooth: (A) cup; (B) 
cement; (C) enamel; (D) ivory; 
and (E) pulp cavity. (After 
Huidekoper.) 



190 



THE TEETH 



After the animal has a full set of permanent teeth, we judge 
the age by the degree of wear or the appearance of the table 
surfaces of the incisors, their shape, the angle with which they 
meet and the general appearance of the head. 

There are several different factors that may cause the wear 
on the teeth, and the appearance of their table surfaces to vary 
in the different individuals. The two factors that are of the 




Fig. 53. — Cross-section of head of young horse showing replacement of molar tooth (A). 

most importance are the quality of the teeth and the character 
of feed. Soft teeth wear more quickly than hard teeth, and the 
teeth of horses that feed over closely cropped and sandy pastures 
wear rapidly because of the dirt and grit present on the short 
grass. This variation in the wear is of little importance to the 
person who must judge the age of a horse that he expects to 
purchase by the condition of the teeth. In reality, a horse is 
just as old as the wear on the teeth and his general appearance 



DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS 



191 



indicate. In order to stand severe work the animal must be 
able to masticate the feed, and prepare it for digestion in the 
stomach and intestines. The degree of wear on the molar 
teeth may be indicated by the wear on the incisors. The general 
condition of the horse and his ability to stand hard work depend 
very largely on the condition of the table surfaces of the molars. 

It is very difficult to judge the age of horses that have de- 
formed mouths or that are in the habit of crib-biting, because 
of the irregularity in the wear of the incisors. 

When examining the teeth for the purpose of determining 




Fia. 54. — Transverse section of incisor tooth: (A) peripheral cement; (B) peripheral 
enamel; (C) ivory; (D) central enamel; and (E) central cement. (After Huidekoper.) 

the horse's age, the shape of the incisors, the angle with which 
they meet and the appearance of their table surfaces should be 
observed. The teeth of young horses show more or less yellowish 
cement. At about seven years of age the anterior faces of the 
teeth are usually white, later a yellowish color. The teeth of 
middle-aged horses may be long, and in aged animals, narrow 
and short. The incisors meet at a more acute angle in old than 
young horses. 

The free portion of the incisor tooth is flattened from before 
to behind. At the level of the gums its two diameters are about 
the same, but the portion of the tooth imbedded in the jaw bone 



192 



THE TEETH 





I6M0. 



SYR 



is flattened from side to side. As the tooth becomes worn off, 
the length of the free portion is maintained by a pushing out of 
the tooth, and a corresponding shortening of the portion that is 
fixed or imbedded in the jaw. 

The table surface of the univorn incisor tooth is covered with 

enamel, and in the middle por- 
tion the enamel forms a deep cup. 
After the tooth has become worn 
the margin of the table portion is 
then limited by a ring of enamel. 
This is termed the encircling 
enamel ring. The central portion 
of the table shows a second ring, 
the central enameling ring, that 
limits the cup margin (Fig. 54). 
As the table surface repre- 
sents a cross section of the tooth, 
its ap2>earance and shape will 
then depend on the portion of the 
tooth that it represents. From 
year to year, there is a gradual 
shortening in the lateral diameter, 
and an apparent increase in the 
diameter from before to behind. 
These changes in shape are from 
a lon^, narrow table surface to an 

Fig. 55.-Transverse sections of incisor ^Val, frOm OVal tO circular and 
tooth showing changes in shape and ap- f^.^,^ o^vo^^^i^r to trinnomlnT' (V\a- 
pearance at different ages. (After Huide- ^^^m CirCUiar 10 tliaUgUiar (^-Tlg. 

^°P*^''-^ 55). As the original free por- 

tion of the tooth wears off, the cup becomes shallow and smaller 
until the remnant is represented by a mere dot of enamel that 
finally disappears from the posterior portion of the table. After 
the cup has moved from the central portion of the crown 
and occupies a more posterior position, the dental star, which 



10 YR. 



15 YR. 



DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS 193 

represents a cross section, of the pulp cavity, puts in its appear- 
ance. It first takes the form of a brown or dark streak, and 
later a circular dark spot which gradually increases in size with 
the wear on tlie tooth and the age of the animal. 

The following changes in the shape and appearance of the 
incisor teeth of the average horse occur in the different years. 
Unless otherwise mentioned, the statements made regarding the 
appearance and wear on the table surfaces apply to the lower 
incisor teeth. 

Six Years. — The table surfaces form the most accurate guide. 
The cups of the nippers tend to an oval form. The corner teeth 
have been in wear one year at this time. The cup is deep and 
the posterior margin may show little wear. It is not uncommon 
to meet with corners that possess irregularly developed tables, 
and have cups with posterior margins that are thin and do not 
come into wear until later. For this reason, it is not best to 
depend on the appearance of the corner teeth alone. 

Seven Years. — The teeth are usually whiter than the previ- 
ous year. The profile of the upper corner teeth shows a notch 
in the posterior portion of the table surface. This is due to the 
superior corners overhanging the inferior corner teeth pos- 
teriorly, resulting in this portion not wearing away. This notch 
is sometimes slightly in evidence the previous year. The cups 
in the corners are smaller and the worn surface larger than at 
six. The nippers show oval table surfaces and the dividers are 
beginning to take on this shape. The shifting of the cups toward 
the posterior portion of the tables of the nippers and dividers 
is noticeable. 

Eight Years. — As viewed from the side, the profile of the 
teeth shows a very noticeable increase in the obliquity with which 
they meet. The posterior borders of the corners show consider- 
able wear. The notch in the superior corners is still present, 
but as the teeth come more nearly in apposition it may begin to 
disappear. All of the inferior tables are level. The nippers and 
13 



194 THE TEETH 

dividers are oval in shape, and the enps have become decidedly 
narrow. The nippers show a well-defined dark streak just in 
front of the cups. This is the beginning of the dental star. 

Nine Years. — The appearance of the table surface is more 
characteristic at this time than the previous year. The cups are 
less prominent and the j^lainness or smoothness of the inferior 
table is more noticeable. The nippers are round, the cups tri- 
angular and the dark streak narrower and more distinct than the 
previous year. The dividers are becoming round and the corner 
teeth are oval. 

Ten Years. — The teeth are more oblique than in the eight- 
year-old and nine-year-old mouth. The table surfaces of the 
inferior nippers are decidedly rounded, the cujjs are small,' 
triangular and situated well toward the posterior borders. The 
dark brown streak or dental star is situated in the central portion 
of the nippers and dividers. The tables of the dividers are 
round. 

Eleven Years. — The tables of the corner teeth are rounded. 
The dark streak or dental star is present in all of the teeth, and 
the remnants of the cups appear as small rings or spots of enamel 
near to the posterior borders of the tables. The notch in the 
superior corners may reappear at this time. 

Twelve Years. — The profile of the teeth when viewed from 
the side is quite oblique. The table surfaces of all the incisors 
are round. But a trace of the cup remains in the inferior 
incisors. The head of the animal is beginning to show age. 
The inferior border of the jaw bone appears narrower, or sharper 
than in the young horse. 

Thirteen Years. — All of the specks of enamel or the rem- 
nants of the cups are gone from the lower incisors. A larger 
notch may be present in the upper corner teeth than at twelve. 
The tables of the inferior nippers are becoming triangular and 
show a small, dark spot or dental star. 

Fourteen Years. — The tables of the inferior nippers are 



DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS 195 

triangular, and the dental star appears as a dark round spot in 
both the nippers and dividers. 

Fifteen Years. — The angle with which the teeth meet is 
greater than at t^^elve, the teeth are smaller and dental stars 
are represented by dark round spots in all of the inferior incisors. 
The tables of the nippers and dividers are triangular. 

Seventeen Years.— All of the tables of the lower incisor 
teeth are triangular. The teeth are narrower and smaller than 
at fifteen. The profile of the incisors, viewed from the side, is 
quite angular. The dental stars are prominent. 

Nineteen Years. — All of the signs of the seventeen-year-old 
mouth are more prominent. The cups have usually disappeared 
from the upper incisors. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the different kinds of teeth; state tlie arrangement and number. 

2. How is the age of an animal determined? 

3. Give the time of replacement of the temporary incisor teeth. 

4. How is the age of the animal determined between the fifth and ninth 

years ? 

5. What changes in the appearance of the table surfaces occur between 

ten and fifteen years of age? 



CHAPTER XX 
IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH 

Parrot-mouth, Lantern-jaw and Scissor-mouth. — The com- 
mon deformities of the jaw and teeth are the overshot or parrot- 
mouth, the undershot or lantern- jaw, and the scissor-mouth. 
These different deformities result in unequal wear on the table 
surfaces of the incisors and molars. In both the overshot and 
undershot jaws, the incisor teeth become abnormally long. In 
the parrot-mouth, the wear occurs on the posterior face of the 
superior and the anterior face of the inferior incisors, the teeth 
becoming worn to rather a sharp edge, depending on the degree 
of the deformity. In the lantern-jaw, the wear occurs on the 
posterior face of the lower and the anterior face of the superior 
row of incisors, the teeth taking on somewhat the same shape as 
the parrot-mouth. The greater the deformity and the older the 
horse becomes, the more difficult it is for the animal to feed or 
graze on pasture. 

In all horses, the two rows of molar teeth are wider apart in 
the superior than in the inferior jaw. This results in the ex- 
ternal border of the tables of the superior row of molars becoming 
longer, or projecting further do^\mward than the internal border. 
The wear on the table surfaces of the inferior row of molars 
is just the opposite of the superior row. In the scissor-mouth the 
wear takes place largely on the internal face of the superior and 
the external face of the inferior row of molars. The teeth be- 
come worn to more or less of a blunt cutting edge, and after a 
time the molars come together somewhat like the jaws of a 
pair of scissors. A horse with a badly deformed scissor-mouth 
is unable to grind the feed, and unless given special care, suffers 
severely from innutrition. 
196 



IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH 197 

The treatment of deformed mouths consists in removing the 
irregular or unworn portion of the teeth by means of the tooth 
float and cutters. This attention should be given early before the 
free portion of the tooth has become excessively long and irregu- 
lar. This should be followed by dressing the teeth every six or 
twelve months. 

Sharp Lateral Borders on the Molar Teeth. — This is a very 
common condition in horses. The external border of the superior 
and the internal border of the inferior row of molars wear away 
slowly, and sometimes become quite sharp. This is objection- 
able because the sharp points lacerate the mucous membrane of 
the cheek and tongue, and the mastication of the feed is seriously 
interfered with. 

This condition is caused by an excessive difference in the 
width of the jaws, unusually prominent ridges of enamel on the 
external face of the superior molars, and any conditions that 
may limit the movements of the jaw. 

The following symptoms may be noted. The animal has 
diificulty in masticating the feed because of injury to the cheeks 
or tongue by the sharp points of enamel. This condition may^ 
be indicated by holding the head to one side. Salivation is 
usually present. Acute indigestion and innutrition may occur. 

By examining the teeth, their condition can be determined. 
The sharp borders may be removed by dressing or floating the 
teeth. It is advisable in the majority of horses to float the teeth 
at least once in every twelve months. 

Irregularities in the Table Surface of the Molar Teeth. — 
Horses eight years of age or older frequently have irregular 
molars (Fig. 56). This is due very largely to the difference in the 
quality of the teeth. The harder molars do not wear off as rapidly 
as the softer ones. This results in the table surfaces of the rows of 
molars becoming wavy or step-like in outline. Sometimes the 
first or sixth molar overhangs or projects beyond the corre- 
sponding tooth of the opposite jaw. When this occurs, the over- 



198 



THE TEETH 



hanging portion may become long and sharp. A molar tooth 
becomes excessively long if the opposite one is decayed or removed. 
The symptoms are very much the same as when the borders 
of the molars are sharp. 




-#iS^ 



Fig. 56. — Teeth showing uneven wear occurring in old horses. 

The treatment consists in levelling the tables as frequently 
as necessary l\v cutting off the longer projections, and removing 
the sharp edges: with a tooth float. 

Smooth Mouth. — In old age the tables of the molar teeth 
may become so smooth that the horse cannot grind or masticate 



IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH 



199 



the feed. "SVlien all of the molars are in this condition, a rubbing 
sound may be noted when the animal is masticating hay. After 
attempting to chew the hay, it may be dropped from the mouth. 
Innutrition always occurs. 

The treatment consists in feeding chops and soft feeds. 

Dental Diseases. — Inflammation of the alveolar periosteum 
is a common dental disease in domestic animals. This is an 
inflammation of the alveolar dental membrane that fixes the 
tooth in the tooth cavity. 




Fig. 57. — Fistula of jaw. This condition was the result of neglected treatment 
of decayed teeth. 

Injuries to the gums and cracks or fissures in the tooth are 
the common causes. Caries or tooth decay is not uncommon. 
The predisposing factor is a poor quality of enamel and dentine. 
The process of decay is assisted by organisms. 

The early symptoms may escape notice. Slobbering, masti- 
cating on one side, holding the head to one side, retained masses 
of food in the mouth and a disagreeable odor frequently occur. 
Caries may be indicated at first by a dark spot on the table of 
the tooth, later by a cavity. In horses, inflammation of the 



200 THE TEETH 

alveolar membrane results in a bony enlargement on the side of 
the face if the superior molar is involved. A swelling of the 
jaw and fistula may result if a lower molar is involved (Fig. 57). 
The treatment consists in the prompt removal of the tooth. 
This is more difficult in young animals than it is in the middle- 
aged or old. Unless the tooth is already loosened it may be 
necessary to remove it by trephining. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the appearance of the teeth in an overshot or undershot jaw. 

2. Describe the appearance of sharp molar teeth; a scissor-mouth. 

3. What are the causes of decayed teeth? 



PART IV 

SURGICAL DISEASES 



CHAPTER XXI 
INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 

Inflammation is a pathological condition of a tissue, char- 
acterized by altered function, disturbance of circulation, and 
destructive and constructive changes in the irritated part. Heat, 
redness, swelling, pain and disturbed function are the symptoms 
which characterize inflammation. 

The cha7iges in the circulation occurring in inflammation are 
as follows : ( 1 ) An increase in the rate of the blood-flow through 
the blood-vessels of the part and their dilation; (2) diminished 
velocity followed by the blood-flow becoming entirely suspended ; 
(3) following the retardation or suspension of the blood stream, 
white blood-corpuscles accumulate along the walls of the small 
veins and capillaries ; (4) white and red blood-corpuscles migrate 
from the vessels into the neighboring tissue, and blood-serum 
transudes through the walls of the vessels, forming the inflamma- 
tory swellings. The red blood-cells do not escape from the blood- 
vessels in any numbers unless the walls of the blood-vessels 
become injured or badly diseased. 

The causes of inflammation may be grouped under the fol- 
lowing heads: mechanical, chemical, thermic and infectious. 
The mechanical or traumatic causes commonly produce in- 
flammation in domestic animals. These are kicks, strains of 
tendons, ligaments or muscles and wounds. Inflammation 
originating from injuries very frequently changes to an in- 
fectious form, through the infection of the part by bacteria. 
Bruised tissue may become infected with pus-producing organ- 
isms, and an abscess or local swelling form. All accidental 
wounds in domestic animals become more or less infected by 
irritating microorganisms. 

The following symptoms occur in local inflammation. In- 

203 



204 SURGICAL DISEASES 

creased heat in the part is an important symptom. It is due to 
the increased biood-ilow to the part. Because of the pigmented, 
hairy skin of domestic, animals, redness is of little value in 
locating superficial iiillammatioii. Swelling is a vahiable local 
symptom. It is produced by the inflammatory exudates. Pain 
results from the pressure on the sensory nerves by the in- 
flammatory swelling. For example, the lamina' of the foot are 
imprisoned between the horny wall and the pedal bone. This 
structure is well supplied with sensory nerves, and when it 
becomes inflamed and swollen, the tissues are subject to severe 
pressure and the pain is severe. Inflammation of a tendon re- 
sults in lameness ; of the udder, in suspension of milk secretions ; 
and of the stomach by interference with digestion of the feed. 
Such symptoms may l)e grouped under the head of disturbed 
functions. 

The character of an inflammation is largely modified by the 
nature of the tissue in which it occurs. A serous inflammation 
is characterized by serous, watery exudates. This form occurs 
in the serous membranes, mucous membranes and skin. Blisters 
on the skin and inflammation of bursa' (capped hock and shoe 
boil) are examples of this type. Sero-flbrinous inflammations, 
such as occur in pleurisy and peritonitis, are common. Chronic 
inflammation connnonly results in new formations of tissue, 
and it is named according to the character of the new tissue 
formed, as ossifying, adhesive and fibrous inflammation. Pus- 
forming bacteria produce suppurative inflammation. Such dis- 
eases as tuberculosis, glanders and hog-cholera are specific in- 
flammations. Specific infectious diseases may be classed as 
generalized inflammation, as they usually involve the entire 
body. 

Inflammation terminates in resolution when the serum is 
reabsorbed by the blood-vessels and lymphatics, the living blood- 
cells find their way back into the circulation and the dead cells 
disintegrate and are taken up by the vessels. The time required 



INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 205 

for the tissues to return to the normal varies from a few hours 
to several weeks. An acute inflammation may end in the chronic 
form. This may then terminate in new formations, such as 
adhesions, fibrous thickenings and bony enlargements. Severe 
inflammation, especially if localized and superficial, may re- 
sult in death of the part or gangrene. 

The following treatment is recommended: The cause of 
the irritation to the tissue must be removed. It is very essential 
that the part be rested. The necessary rest may be obtained 
in different ways. Inflamed tendons, ligaments, and muscles 
may be rested by placing the animal in a sling, standing it in a 
stall, or fixing the part with bandages. Rest of the stomach or 
intestinal tract may be obtained by feeding a light diet, or 
withholding all feed. Comfortable quarters, special care and 
dieting the animal are important factors in the treatment of 
inflammation. 

The agents used in the treatment of superficial and localized 
inflammation are heat, cold, massage and counter-irritation. 
Heat is indicated in all inflammations, excepting when of 
bacterial origin. It stimulates the circulation and reabsorption 
of the inflammatory exudates, and by relaxing the tissues helps 
greatly in relieving pain. Cold is more effective in the highly 
acute and septic (suppurative) inflammation. Its action con- 
sists principally in the contraction of the dilated blood-vessels. 
Continuous irrigation of the part with cold water is the most 
satisfactory method of applying cold. Massage is a very im- 
portant method of treating superficial inflammation. Mild, 
stimulating liniments are usually used in connection with hand- 
rubbing or friction. Chronic inflammation is usually treated 
with counter-irritants. Blistering and firing are the most 
important methods of treatment. Such counter-irritation makes 
possible the absorption of the inflammatory exudates by chang- 
ing the chronic inflammation to the acut€ form. 

Wounds. — A wound, in the restricted sense that the term is 



206 SURGICAL DISEASES 

commonlj used, includes only such injuries that are accompanied 
by breaks or divisions of the skin and mucous membrane. It is 
usually an open, hemorrhagic injury. 

If the tissues are severed by a sharp instrument and the 
edges of the wound are smooth, it is classed as an incised or 
clean-cut wound. This class is not commonly met with in do- 
mestic animals outside of operative wounds. 

When the tissues are torn irregularly, the injury is classed 
as a lacerated ivound. A barb-wire cut is the best example of 
this class. 

A contused ivound is an injury caused by a blunt object. 
Such injuries may be divided into superficial and deep. Super- 
ficial-contused wounds may be an abrasion to the skin or mucous 
surface. Deep-contused wounds may be followed by loss of 
tissue or sloughing, and may present irregular, swollen margins. 
Such injuries are commonly caused by kicks. 

Punctured ivounds are many times deeper than the width 
of the opening or break in the skin or mucous membrane. This 
class is produced by sharp objects, such as nails, splinters of 
wood, and forks. 

Sometimes, wounds are given special names, as giin-shot, 
poisoned, and open joint, depending on the nature of the cause 
and region involved. 

Bleeding or hemorrhage is the most constant s•^^nptom. 
The degree of hemorrhage depends on the kind, number and 
size of the blood-vessels severed. In arterial hemorrhage, the 
blood is bright red and spurts from the mouth of the cut vessel. 
In venous hemorrhage, the blood is darker and flows in a con- 
tinuous stream. In abrasions and superficial wounds capillary 
hemorrhage occurs. Death may follow severe hemorrhage. 
Weak pulse, general weakness, vertigo, loss of consciousness and 
death may result if one-third of the total quantity of blood is 
lost. Unthriftiness and general debility may follow the loss of 
a less quantity of blood. 



INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 



207 



The following symptoms 
may be noted in the differ- 
ent kinds of wounds: The 
sensitiveness to the pain re- 
sulting from accidental or 
operative wounds varies in 
the different individuals and 
species, and in the kind of 
tissue injured. Injuries to 
the foot, periosteum, skin 
and mucous membrane are 
more painful than are in- 
juries to cartilages and ten- 
dons. The appearance of 
the wound varies in the dif- 
ferent regions and the differ- 
ent tissues. 

If the tissues are badly 
torn or bruised, swelling 
and sloughing may occur. 
If the wound is transverse 
to the muscular fibres, it 
gaps more than when paral- 
lel to the muscle. When in- 
fected by irritating organ- 
isms, open and punctured 
wounds (Fig. 58) become 
badly swollen, discharge pus 
freely and heal slowly with 
excessive granulations. 
Wounds involving tendons, 
bursas and closed articula- 
tions become swollen and 
discharge synovia. Wounds 




Fig. 58.- 



-A large hock caused by a punctured 
wound of the joint. 



208 



SURGICAL DISEASES 



involving muscles, tendons and bursa* usually cause lameness, 
and when involving a special organ, interfere with, or destroy, 
its function. Extensive or serious wounds may be followed by 
loss of appetite. An abnormal body temperature and other 
symptoms characteristic of the different forms of blood poison- 
'ng may follow infection of the injured tissues by certain germs. 
The rapidity with which wounds heal depends upon the kind 

of tissue injured and the 
amount to be replaced, the 
degree of motion in the part, 
the kind and degree of infec- 
tion and irritation and the 
general condition of the ani- 
mal. In general, skin and 
muscles heal rapidly, tendons 
slowly, cartilages unsatisfac- 
torily and nerve tissue very 
slowly. Healing is greatly 
interfered with by movement 
of the part (Fig. 59). The 
more nearly the part can be 
fixed or rested, the more 
quickly and satisfactorily 
does healing occur. Irritation 
by biting, nibbling, licking, 
bandaging, wrong methods of 
treatment, and filth retard 
healing and may result in serious wound complications. An 
animal in poor physical condition, or one kept under unfavor- 
able conditions for healing, cannot recover from the injury 
rapidly or satisfactorily. 

Wound Healing. — The following forms of healing commonly 
occur in wounds : First and second intention ; under a scab, and 
by abnormal granulation. 




Fig. 59. — A large inflammatory growth fol- 
lowing an injury to the front of the hock. 



INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 209 

Healing hy first intention occurs when the wound is clean 
cut and there is very little destruction of tissue, and when there 
is no suppuration or pus formation. The blood and wound 
secretions cause the edges of the wound to adhere. After a few 
days or a week the union becomes firm. Very little scar tissue is 
necessary in this form of healing. 

Healing hy second intention is characterized by pus forma- 
tion and granulation tissue. After the first day, the surface 
of the wound may be more or less covered by red, granular-like 
tissue. Later this granular appearance is modified by an 
accumulation of creamy pus and swelling of the part, and 
finally scab formation and contraction of the new scar tissue. 

Abrasions and superficial wounds usually heal under a 
scab. The scab is formed by the blood and wound secretions. 
This protects the surface of the wound until finally the de- 
stroyed tissue is replaced by the granulations, and the skin sur- 
face is restored. 

Abnormal granulation is not an uncommon form of healing 
in domestic animals. Mechanical and bacterial irritation causes 
the injured tissue to become swollen and inflamed. In such a 
wound, excessive and rapid granulation occurs, the new tissue 
piling up over the cut surfaces and appearing red and uneven. 
This is termed excessive gTanulation or " proud flesh." This 
tissue may refuse to " heal over,'' or the scar may be large, 
prominent and painful. Abnormal tissue (horny or tumor- 
like) may sometimes form. 

Wound Treatment. — ^^Vounds in domestic animals are fre- 
quently allowed to heal without special care or treatment. This 
is unfortunate. The careful and intelligent treatment of wounds 
would gTeatly decrease the loss resulting from this class of 
injuries. The method of treatment varies in the different kinds 
of wounds. 

The first step in the treatment is to checJc the hemorrhage. 
Heat, ligation, pressure and torsion are the different methods 
14 



210 SURGICAL DISEASES 

recommended. Bathing the wound with hot water (115 °- 
120 ° r.) is a satisfactory method of controlling hemorrhage 
from small blood-vessels. Ligation and torsion of the cut end of 
large blood-vessels should be practised. Pressure over the sur- 
face of the wound is the most convenient method of controlling 
hemorrhage in most cases. Whenever possible, the part should 
be bandaged heavily with clean cheese cloth or muslin. Before 
applying the bandage, it is advisable to cover the wound with a 
piece of sterile absorbent cotton that is well dusted with boric 
acid. Hemorrhage from wounds that cannot be bandaged may be 
temporarily stopped by pressure with the hand, or, better, by 
packing the wound with absorbent cotton and holding this in 
place with sutures. This should be left in place for a period of 
twelve or thirty-six hours, depending on the extent of the hemor- 
rhage and character of the wound. 

The next step is the preparation of the ivound for healing. 
The injured tissues should be carefully examined for foreign 
bodies such as hair, dirt, gravel, slivers of wood and nails. The 
hair along the margins of the wound should be trimmed, and all 
tissue that is so torn and detached as to interfere with healing 
cut away. Drainage for the wound secretions and pus should be 
provided. The advisability of suturing the wound depends on 
its character and location. A contused-lacerated wound should 
not be closed with sutures unless it is clean and shows no evi- 
dence of sloughing. A badly infected wound should be left open 
unless satisfactory drainage for the pus and wound secretions 
can be provided. Wounds across the muscle and in parts that 
are quite movable should not be sutured. 

The after-treatment consists in keeping the animal quiet, 
if the wound is in a part that is quite movable, and preventing 
it from biting, licking or nibbling the injury. Wounds in the 
region of the foot become irritated with dirt and by rubbing 
against weeds and grass. This makes it advisable to keep the 
animal in a clean stall until healing is well advanced. Local 



INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 211 

treatment consists in keeping the wound clean by washing the 
part daily, or twice daily, with a one per cent water solution 
of a cresol disinfectant. Liquor cresolis compositus may be used. 
It is sometimes advisable to protect the granulating surface 
against irritation by dusting it over with a non-irritating anti- 
septic powder, or applying a mixture of carbolic acid one part 
and glycerine twelve parts. After the wound shows healthy 
granulations longer intervals should lapse between treatments. 

In poorly cared for, and badly infected wounds, the part 
may become badly swollen, the granulations pile up and the 
wound refuse to " heal over." It may be advisable in such 
cases to cut away the excessive granulations and stop the hemor- 
rhage by cauterization with a red-hot iron, or by compression. 
Unhealthy granulations may be kept down by applying caustic 
occasionally. 

Abscess. — This is an accumulation of pus in the tissues. 
It may be due to a severe bruise or contusion that is followed by 
the infection of the part with some of the pus-producing bacteria. 
Abscesses occur in certain infectious diseases. In strangles, the 
disease-producing organism may be carried to different regions 
of the body by the circulatory vessels. This may result in a 
number of abscesses forming in the different body tissues. 

The following forms of abscess are recognized: hot and 
cold, superficial and deep, simple and multiple. The hot is the 
acute, and the cold the chronic abscess. The terms superficial 
and deep allude to the relative position of the abscess, and simple 
and multiple to the number present. 

An abscess may first appear as a hot, painful swelling. If 
superficial, the skin feels tense and the contents fluctuate when 
pressed on. Later the fever subsides and no pain may occur 
when the abscess is pressed upon. Deep abscess may not 
fluctuate. 

The treatment consists in converting the abscess into an open 
wound whenever possible. The incision should extend to the 
lowest part of the wall, so as to insure complete drainage. A 



212 



SURGICAL DISEASES 



cold abscess in the shoulder region may become lined by a layer 
of tissue that retards healing. In order to hasten the healing 
process, it may be necessary to remove this. Until granulation 
is well advanced, the abscess cavity should be irrigated daily 
with a one per cent water solution of liquor crcsolis compositus, 





FiQ. 60. — Fistula of the withers, siiowing the effect of using caustics carelessly. 



or a one to two thousand water solution of corrosive sublimate. 
The surface of the skin in the region of the abscess should be 
kept clean. 

Fistulous Withers and Poll Evil. — These tenns are applied 
to swellings, blood tumors, abscesses and pus fistula? that may be 



INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS 213 

present in the region of the poll and withers (Fig. 60). Pus 
fistula is the characteristic lesion present, and it is the result of a 
suppurative inflammation of the tissues in the region. The 
abscess cavity or cavities are usually deep, and may involve 
the ligaments and vertebra. 

Bruises or contusions are the most common causes. The 
prominence of these regions predisposes them to injury in the 
stable, or v^hen rolling on rough or stony ground. Bites and 
bruises to the withers resulting from other horses taking hold 
of the region with the teeth, or striking the part against a hard 
surface, are frequent causes. 

The treatment is both preventive and surgical. All possible 
causes should be investigated. This is of special importance on 
premises where several horses develop fistulous withers and 
poll evil. If the cause then becomes known, it should be removed. 

The surgical treatment consists in opening up the difl^erent 
abscess cavities, providing complete drainage for the pus and 
destroying the tissue that lines the walls of the cavities. Horses 
that are prone to rub the region should be prevented from doing 
this, as such irritation retards healing. Autogenous bacterins 
should be used in addition to the surgical treatment. A pus 
fistula should heal from the bottom, and if the opening becomes 
closed, drainage should be re-established. The daily treatment 
is the same as recommended for abscesses. Excessive cutting 
and destruction of the tissues with caustic preparations result 
in scarring and deformity of the part. Such radical lines of 
treatment should be discouraged. We should not delay the surgi- 
cal treatment of abscesses in the regions of the poll and withers. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name and describe the different forms of inflammation. 

2. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation. 

3. Name and describe the different methods by which wounds heal. 

4. Describe the treatment of wounds. 

5. What are the causes of an abscess? Give the treatment. 

6. What are the causes of fistula and poll evil ? Give the treatment. 



CHAPTER XXII 
FRACTURES AND HARNESS INJURIES 

Fractures. — Broken bones or fractures are not uncommon 
in domestic animals. In the liorse, the bones of the leg, forearm, 
foot, and spine are the most commonly broken. In the dog the 
largest percentage of breaks occurs in the superior regions of the 
limbs. 

Fractures may be classified as simple and compound, com- 
plete and incomplete, comminuted or splinter. In the simple 
fracture the skin over the region escapes injury, but in the com- 
pound fracture the skin is broken and the ends of the broken 
bone may protrude through it. The terms complete and in- 
complete are used in describing fractures in which the ends of 
the bones are not attached to each other, or partially so. In the 
connninuted fracture the bone is broken into a number of pieces. 
There are a number of other terms that may be used in designat- 
ing the different kinds of fractures, such as double, when both 
bones in the region are broken, and oblique, transverse and 
longitudinal, depending on the direction of the break. 

The causes of fractures may be divided into external or 
mechanical, and internal. Fractures may result from kicks, 
blows, muscular strain and contusions. Abnormal fragility due 
to disease, extreme youth and old age are the internal predis- 
posing factors. 

The symptoms are crepitation, abnormal movement and de- 
formity of the part. Abnormal movement of the part and 
inability to support weight occur in fractures of the bones of 
the limbs. Crepitation or a grinding, rubbing sound due to the 
movement of the ends of the broken bones on one another occurs 
when the part is moved or manipulated with the hands. Pain, 
swelling and injury to the skin are other local symptoms. The 
214 



FRACTURES AND HARNESS INJURIES 215 

new tissue or bone callus is formed by the bone-forming cells 
in the deeper layer of the periosteum and bone-marrow. 

The prognosis is unfavorable. The larger percentage of 
fractures in domestic animals are incurable, or make an un- 
satisfactory recovery. This is due to careless treatment, the 
character of the fracture and the inability to fix the ends of the 
broken bone. Fractures in young and small animals usually 
heal quickly. Individuals that are healthy and vigorous usually 
make a speedy recovery. Fractures heal very slowly in the aged. 
Compound and conuninuted fractures are impossible to treat 
in the larger percentage of cases. 

The treatment consists in fixing the broken bone or bones 
in a normal position by means of bandages and splints. If 
this is not practised, the surrounding tissues become injured by 
the broken ends of the bone, and the fracture may become so 
complicated as to render treatment useless. Motion retards or 
prevents the repair of the break. 

However, fractures of the ribs, pelvic bones and sometimes 
long bones that are well covered by heavy muscles heal naturally 
or in the absence of any means of retention. 

Bandaging. — The attendant must use good judgment in de- 
vising means of fixing the broken bone, and in holding it in its 
natural position. Whenever possible, a plaster bandage should 
be used. This must not be made too heavy, and it is very neces- 
sary to adjust it properly, so that it will stay in place and not 
become too tight or too loose. When applied to the limb, the 
bandage should extend as far down as the hoof, and some dis- 
tance above the break. This is necessary in order to keep it from 
slipping down and becoming too loose. A soft bandage should 
be applied first in order to equalize the pressure from the plaster 
cast and protect the skin. Wooden splints are not very satis- 
factory agents for the treatment of fractures. Thick leather that 
has been made soft by soaking in warm water and then shaping 
it to the part makes a more satisfactory splint. In all cases a 



216 



SURGICAL DISEASES 



soft bandage should be applied under the splint. The adjust- 
ment of the plaster bandage or splint should be noticed daily, and 
whenever necessary it should be removed and readjusted 

Injuries to the skin must be carefully cleaned, disinfected 
and bandaged before applying the plaster bandage. If evidence 
of wound infection occur later, the bandage must be removed and 
the wound treated. Large animals suffering with a fracture of 
any of the bones of the limb should be placed in slings. In- 
complete fracture should receive the same treatment as simple 




Fig. 61. — Shoulder abscess caused by loose-fitting liunie.'is. 

fracture. If this is practised, the danger of its becoming com- 
plete is avoided. 

Harness Injuries. — This class of injuries is common in 
horses that are given steady, hard work, or that are not accus- 
tomed to work. Young horses, when first put to hard work, are 
especially prone to injuries from the collar. A large proportion 
of these injuries are due to an ill-fitting harness or saddle. 

When the harness is not adjusted or fitted properly, there is 
severe pressure on certain parts. This is the common cause of 
shoulder abscesses (Fig. 61), sore necks and sit-fasts. Rough, 



FRACTURES AND HARNESS INJURIES 217 

uneven surfaces on the faces of the collar and saddle are the 
common causes of galling. The character of the work is an 
important factor. Work that requires the animal to support 
weight on the top surface of the neck is productive of sore neck. 
Heavy work over rough, uneven ground frequently causes 
shoulder abscesses and strained muscles. 

The simplest and most common harness injuries are galling, 
sore shoulders and sore neck. Harness galls first appear as flat, 
painful swellings. On raising the collar from the skin the in- 
flamed area appears dry and the surrounding hair is wet with 
sweat. Later, the skin becomes hard and its outer layer, and 
sometimes the deeper layer as well, slough, or is rubbed off by 
friction of the harness. The surface then appears red and 
moist. Fluctuating swellings due to small collections of blood 
and lymph sometimes form. Sometimes, small areas on the face 
of the shoulder and that portion of the back pressed on by the 
saddle become swollen, indurated and hard and give the shoulder 
a rough appearance. Continuous irritation from the collar may 
cause an inflammatory thickening of the subcutaneous tissue in 
the shoulder region, and the skin appears loose and somewhat 
folded. This uneven surface is productive of chronic collar galls. 

A sit-fast is characterized by a large swelling at the top of 
the neck, followed by a deep sloughing of the tissues. A slightly 
swollen, wrinkled condition of the skin over the top of the neck 
is sometimes present in horses that resist the attendant, when 
he attempts to handle the part or harness the animal. This form 
of sore neck is evidently very painful, although little evidence 
of inflammation is present. 

Strain of shoulder muscles and shoulder abscesses have been 
discussed under their separate heads. 

The treatment is very largely preventive. Too little atten- 
tion is given to the proper fitting of the harness and saddle. A 
well-fitted collar that properly distributes the weight on the 
shoulder, and is neither too small or too large at the top of the 



218 SURGICAL DISEASES 

neck, is the best preventive for shoulder and neck injuries. Old, 
ill-fitting, lumpy collars should not be used. Neither should the 
same collar be used for different horses. Farmers should avoid 
using sweat pads that are lumpj or soaked with sweat. If soft 
and dry, such pads are useful in preventing galling. The sur- 
faces of the collar or saddle that come in contact with the skin 
should be kept smooth and clean. In the spring of the year, it is 
advisable to bathe the shoulders of work horses with cold water 
twice a day. Bathing the shoulders with the following prepara- 
tion is a useful preventive measure : Lead acetate four ounces, 
zinc sulfate three ounces and water one gallon. Smooth leather 
pads for the top of the collar and saddle are useful preventive 
and curative agents. 

Galls are hesf treated by rest. Ointments or " gall cures '' 
are usually applied. The following dry dressing dusted over the 
red, moist, abraded surfaces is quite healing: Tannic acid one 
ounce, boric acid four ounces, and calomel two ounces. This 
may be dusted over the part two or three times daily. Dry, 
abraded surfaces may be treated by applying a mixture of 
glycerine four ounces, tannic acid one-half ounce and carbolic 
acid one dram. In operating for the removal of fibrous enlarge- 
ments, thickened skin and abscesses on the front of the shoulder, 
it is advisable to make the incision in the skin well to the side of 
the face of the shoulder in order to avoid scarring the surface 
that comes in contact with the collar. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Xame and describe the different kinds of fractures. 

2. What are the symptoms of fracture? 

3. Describe the treatment of fractures. 

4. What are the causes of harness injuries? 

5. Describe tlie treatment of the different harness injuries. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS 

Dehorning Cattle. — It is very often necessary to remove the 
horns of cattle in order to prevent their injuring or worrying 
certain individuals in the herd. This operation is of greatest 
economic importance in dairy and feeding cattle. When first 
practised, the dehorning of mature cattle was condemned by 
some persons who deemed it an inhuman and unnecessary opera- 
tion. It is surely a humane act to remove the horns of cattle that 
are confined in small yards and pastures, and prevent them from 
painfully, or seriously, injuring one another. 

In most localities there are men who are well equipped to 
dehorn cattle, and able to perform this operation for a very 
moderate fee. It is not advisable to attempt to dehorn a number 
of adult cattle if the operator is not well equipped for the work. 
Unless a well-constructed dehorning rack is available for con- 
fining the animals, there is danger of injuring them and it is 
very difiicult to saw off the horn quickly and satisfactorily. 
This increases the pain that the animal suffers, and horn stubs 
soon develop. 

Good equipment, such as a chute, saw or clippers, is neces- 
sary. A dehorning chute should be built of plank with a good 
frame well bolted together, with stanchion and nose block for 
confining the head. Most operators prefer a meat saw for cutting 
off the horns. It is preferable to dehorning shears, as there is 
danger of fracturing the frontal bone when removing the horns 
of mature cattle. The best form of dehorning shears have a 
wide V in the cutting edge. 

The operation is very simple. The horn should be cut off 
at a point from one-quarter to one-half an inch below the hair 
line or skin. If this is not practised, an irregular horn growth 

219 



220 SURGICAL DISEASES 

or stub of horn develops. It is usually unnecessary to apply 
anything to the wound. If the animal does not strike or rub 
the part, the clot that forms closes the blood-vessels and the 
hemorrhage stops. In ease of hemorrhage of a serious nature, 
a small piece of absorbent cotton may be spread over the sur- 
face of the wound, and pushed in to the opening in order to keep 
it in place. Pine tar may be smeared over this dressing. Some 
operators prefer cauterizing the wound with a red-hot iron for 
the purpose of preventing hemorrhage. During warm weather, 
the wound should be washed daily with a two per cent water 
solution of a coal tar disinfectant, until healing is well advanced. 
A very necessary after-treatment is the washing of the part after 
two or three days for the purpose of removing the dried blood. 

The opening at the base of the horn communicates directly 
with the frontal sinus, a large cavity situated between the two 
plates of the frontal bone. Sometimes the bone is slivered, or 
the wound becomes infected and inflamed. This may be due to a 
dirty dehoniing saw, or getting dirt into the wound. The in- 
flammation may extend to the sinus and a heavy discharge from 
the cavity occur. This complication may be prevented by plac- 
ing the saw or cutters in a disinfectant when not in use, and 
cleaning and disinfecting the wound very carefully for a few 
days after the operation. 

The horn huttons of calves from a fe\^ days to one week of 
age can be destroyed, and the growth of the horn prevented by 
applying caustic soda or potash to them. The method of pro- 
cedure is as follows : Clip away the hair from around the base 
of the horn tissue and apply a little vaseline to the skin near, 
but not close to, the base of the horn; moisten the horn button 
and rub it two or three times with the end of the stick of caustic ; 
do not allow the calf to go out in the rain for a few days after 
applying the caustic. The horns of calves a few weeks of age 
may be removed with a sharp knife or calf dehorner. 

Choking. — This is a common accident in cattle and horses. 



COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS 221 

The object that causes the choke may be lodged in the pharynx 
or (Esophagus. Certain individuals are more prone to choke 
while feeding than others. This is because of their habit of 
eating greedily, and swallowing hastily without properly mixing 
the bolus with the saliva. For this reason, choking occurs when 
the animal is eating dry feed. Cattle frequently become choked 
on pieces of such feed as roots and apples that are too large to 
readily pass down the a?sophagus. Sharp objects taken in with 
the feed sometimes become lodged in the oesophagus or pharynx. 

The symptoms differ in complete and partial choke. In the 
latter, the symptoms are not very characteristic. The animal 
may stop feeding, but shows very little evidence of suffering 
pain. It may be able to swallow a little water. On attempting 
to drink, a part of the water may be returned through the nose, 
the same as in complete choke. Ineffectual efforts to swallow, 
salivation, coughing, hurried respiration, and an anxious ex- 
pression of the face occur in complete choke. Bloating may 
complicate this accident in ruminants. After partial choke has 
persisted for a day or two, the animal appears dejected or dis- 
tressed. Pressure on the trachea by hard objects may cause 
difficult respiration. 

Mechanical pneumonia sometimes occurs. This is due to 
the feed and water that the animal may attempt to swallow, 
being returned to the pharynx and passed into the air passages 
and lungs. 

The treatment is as follows: Animals that have choked 
should not be given access to feed of any kind. Any attempt to 
take feed or drink water may result in pneumonia. It may be 
necessary to drench the animal with a very small quantity of 
water for the purpose of diagnosis. The most common form of 
choke in horses is that due to accumulation of dry feed in the 
cesophagTis. The administration of a drug that stimulates the 
secretion of saliva is a very successful method of relieving this 
form of choke. Pilocarpine is the drug commonly used. Cheap 



222 SURGICAL DISEASES 

whips should not be introduced into the oesophagus for the pur- 
pose of dislodging the foreign body. There is always danger of 
the whip becoming broken off, and the broken part lodging in the 
oesophagus. Neither should such rigid objects as a broom or 
rake handle be introduced, because of the danger from serious 
injury to the walls of the pharynx and oesophagTis. The flexible 
probang, which is usually made of spiral wire covered with 
leather, is a very useful instrument to relieve choke when in the 
hands of an experienced operator. If the object causing the 
choke is situated in the neck portion of the (psophagiis, it may 
sometimes be moved forward or toward the stomach by pressure 
with the fingers. 

Castration. — The castration of the male is a common opera- 
tion in domestic animals. The purpose of the operation is to 
render the animal more useful, for work or meat production. 

The age at which the operation is performed varies in the 
different species. The colt is usually castrated when he is one 
year old, and the calf, pig and lamb when a few weeks or a few 
months of age. It is not advisable to castrate the young at wean- 
ing time. The operation and the weaning together may tempo- 
rarily check the growth of the animal. Colts that are unde- 
veloped and in poor flesh, or afi^ected with colt distemper, should 
be allowed to recover before they are operated on. In all ani- 
mals, it is advisable to wait until after they have recovered 
from disease and become thrifty and strong. 

The spring, early summer and fall are the most suitable 
seasons for castrating the young. It may be practised during the 
hot or cold months of the year with little danger from wound 
infection or other complications, providing the necessary after- 
attention can be given. 

The preparation of the animal for the operation by with- 
holding all feed for about twelve hours is very advisable. If 
this is practised, the stomach and intestines are not distended 
with feed, and the young are cleaner, easier to handle and suffer 



COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS 223 

less from castration. Clean quarters and surroundings are very 
necessary to the success of the operation. 

The instruments required are short knives, preferably a 
heavy scalpel and a probe-pointed bistoury, an emasculator for 
large and mature animals, and surgeon's needles and suture 
material. Hopes and casting harness are frequently used for 
confining and casting the large and mature animals. Two 
clean pans or pails filled with a two per cent water solution of 
liquor cresolis compositus, or an equally reliable disinfectant, 
should be provided for cleaning the scrotum and neighboring 
parts and the instruments. Pieces of absorbent cotton or oakum 
may be used in washing and cleaning the scrotum. The instru- 
ments should be sterilized in boiling water before using. 

If a number of pigs or lambs are to be castrated, it is best 
to confine them in a small, clean, well-bedded pen. This enables 
the attendant to catch them quickly and without unnecessary 
excitement or exercise. They should be taken to an adjoining 
pen to be castrated. The scrotum should be washed with the 
disinfectant, and the testicles pressed tightly against the scrotal 
wall. An incision parallel with the middle line or raphe and a 
little to one side is made through the skin and the coverings of 
the testicle, and the testicle pressed out through the incision. 
The testicle and cords are then pulled well out and the cord 
broken off with a quick jerk and twist, or scraped off with a 
knife. The latter method is to be preferred in large lambs if 
the operator does not have an emasculator. The incision in the 
scrotum should be extended from its base to the lowest part, in 
order to secure perfect drainage. 

Young calves may be castrated in the standing position or 
when cast and held on the side. The method of operating is the 
same as recommended for pigs and lambs. 

The castration of the colt may be performed in either the 
standing position or when cast. The method of operating is 
the same as practised in the smaller animals with the exception 



224 SURGICAL DISEASES 

of cutting off the cord. The emasculator is used here. This 
instrument crushes the stump of the cord and prevents hemor- 
rhage from the cut ends of the blood-vessels. Careful aseptic 
precautions must be observed in operating on colts, as they are 
very susceptible to wound infection and peritonitis. 

The blood-vessels of the testicular cord are larger in the adult 
animals, and the danger from hemorrhage is greater than in the 
young. For this reason, it is advisable to use an emasculator 
in castrating all mature animals. 

Complications Following Castration. — The hemorrhage 
from the wound and stump of cord is usually unimportant in 
the young animals. Serious hemorrhage from the vessels of 
the cord sometimes occur in the adult. A very persistent hemor- 
rhage results when a subcutaneous vein is cut in making the in- 
cision in the scrotum. This complication is not usually serious, 
and can be prevented and controlled by observing proper pre- 
cautions in cutting off the cord, or by picking up the cut ends of 
the vessel and ligating it. Packing the scrotal sack with sterile 
gauze or absorbent cotton, and closing the incision with sutures 
may be practised for the purpose of stopping this form of 
hemorrhage. The packing should be removed in about twelve 
hours. 

The infection of the wound always follows castration. If 
the incision is small and the operation is followed by swelling 
of the neighboring tissues, the clotted blood, wound secretions 
and pus become penned up in the scrotal sack. Local blood 
poisoning or peritonitis follows. This is not an uncommon 
complication. It can be prevented by aseptic precautions in 
operating, and insuring good drainage by extending the incision 
to the lowest part of the scrotal sac. The scrotal sac always 
contracts down and becomes more or less s'wollen within a day or 
two following castration. We must keep this in mind when 
enlarging the opening, and be sure and mal^e it plenty large to 
permit the escape of the infectious matter. In castrating, sheep, 



COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS • 225 

all wool in the region of the scrotal sac should be clipped off, 
as this interferes with drainage from the wound. 

Exercise follovnng castration is almost as essential as clean 
quarters. Lack of exercise leads to cedematous swelling in the 
region of the scrotum, and the lips of the incision may become 
adhered if the animal is at rest. Colts and all mature animals 
that are confined in close quarters should be examined within 
forty-eight hours following the operation, and the condition of 
the wound noted. If closed, the hands should be cleaned and dis- 
infected, and the adhesion broken down with the fingers. It is 
best to exercise horses daily. 

It is unsafe to expose castrated animals to cold, damp, chilly 
weather. The shock and soreness resulting from the operation 
render the animal highly susceptible to pleurisy and pneumonia. 
This is especially true of young colts. 

Inguinal hernia or " rupture " may complicate the operation. 
This form of hernia is quite frequently met with in pigs, and 
only occasionally in the other animals. This complication is 
usually overcome by practising what is commonly termed the 
covered operation. The pig is usually held or hung up by the 
hind legs. A larger animal is placed on its back. The hernia 
is reduced by manipulating the mass of intestines with the 
fingers, so that they drop back into the abdominal cavity. The 
part is carefully cleaned and disinfected and an incision made 
through the scrotal wall, and the thin covering or serous sac 
in which the testicle is lodged is exposed. The testicle with the 
cord and covering is dra^vn well out of the scrotum and held by 
an attendant The operator then passes a needle carrying a 
strong silk thread through the cord and covering, below the 
point where he intends severing it. The needle is removed and 
the cord and covering ligated at this point. The cord is then 
cut off about one-half an inch from the ligature, and the incision 
in the scrotum made plenty large in order to insure drainage. 

It is very essential to the success of this operation that the 
15 



226 SURGICAL DISEASES 

animal be dieted for twelve or eighteen hours before attempting 
to operate. The after-treatment consists in giving the animal 
separate quarters and feeding a light diet. 

Enlarged or scirrJious cords follow infection of the wound, 
usually with spores of a certain fungus (Botryomyces). This 
complication more often follows castration of cattle and pigs 
than of colts. Wrong methods of operating, such as leaving the 
stump of the cord too long and insufficient drainage for the pus 
and wound secretions, are the factors that favor this complica- 
tion. Scirrhous cords or fibrous tumors should be dissected 
out and removed before they have become large and begun 
breaking down. 

Castration of Ridgeling or Cryptorchid Animals. — lu the 
ridgeling animal one or both of the testicles have not descended 
into the scrotal sac, and are usually lodged in the inguinal 
canal or abdominal cavity. If the testicle is lodged in the 
inguinal canal the animal is termed a " flanker." In yearling 
colts the testicular cord is sometimes short, and the testicle is 
situated high up in the scrotum and inguinal canal. In examin- 
ing a supposed cryptorchid colt, he should be twitched. This may 
cause the testicle to descend into the scrotum. 

The castration of a true cryptorchid requires a special opera- 
tion. When properly performed and the animal given special 
after-care, the operation is not followed by any serious complica- 
tions. An abnormally large, diseased testicle is sometimes met 
with that cannot be removed in the usual way, and which com- 
plicates and increases the difficulty of operating. 

Caponizing. — The castration or caponizing of the male 
chicken is commonly practised in certain localities. This opera- 
tion changes the disposition of the cockerel. lie becomes more 
quiet and sluggish, never crows, the head is small, the comb and 
wattles cease growing and the hackle and saddle feathers become 
well developed. A capon always develops more uniformly and 
is larger than the cockerel. 



COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS 227 

The best time to caponize the cockerel is when he weighs 
between two or three pounds. If older and heavier, the testicle 
becomes so large that it is very difficult to remove, and the danger 
from tearing the spermatic artery and a fatal hemorrhage result- 
ing is greater. 

There are several kinds of caponizing instruments. They 
may be purchased in sets. Each set should contain an instru- 
ment for removing the testicle ; a knife for making the incision 
through the abdominal wall ; a sharp hook for tearing through 
the thin membrane ; spring spreader for holding the lips of the 
incision apart; a blunt probe for keeping the intestines out of 
the way of the operator; and a pair of tweezers for removing 
clots of blood. The different instruments for removing the 
testicles are a spoon-like scoop, spoon forceps and cannula. The 
spoon-like scoop is preferred by most operators. 

The cockerel is confined for the operation by passing a strong 
noose of cord around both legs, and a second noose around the 
wings close to the body, that have weights fastened to them. 
The cords pass through holes or loops in a barrel or board that 
is used for an operating table. This holds the cockerel firmly 
and prevents his struggling. 

The bird should be prepared for the operation by withhold- 
ing all feed and water for a period of twenty-four hours or longer, 
for the purpose of emptying out the intestine. The operator 
must have a strong light, in order to work quickly and safely. 
Direct sunlight or electric light should be used. 

The instruments should be placed in a two per cent water 
solution of carbolic acid. A second vessel containing a two per 
cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound for cleaning 
the skin is necessary. Absorbent cotton should be used for 
washing the wound. 

The general method of operating is as follows : The incision 
is made between the last two ribs and in front of the thigh. 



228 SURGICAL DISEASES 

The feathers over this region should be removed, and the skin 
pulled to one side before making the incision. An incision about 
one and one-half inches in length is made through the skin and 
muscles, and the spreader inserted. The sharp hook is then 
inserted and the thin serous membrane over the intestine is torn 
through. The testicles are situated in the superior portion of 
the abdominal cavity or under the back. On pushing the intes- 
tines to one side, both testicles, which are about the size of a bean 
and yellowish in color, can be seen. The lower one should be re- 
moved first. After removing both testicles, blood clots, feathers, 
or any foreign body that may have gotten into the wound should 
be picked up with the tweezers before removing the spreaders 
and allowing the wound to close. ISTo special after-treatment is 
required. 

The most common complication is rupture of the spermatic 
artery. This occurs at the time the testicle is torn loose and may 
be due to careless methods, or operating on cockerels that are 
too large. If all of the testicle is not removed from the abdominal 
cavity, the bird is termed a " slip." Sometimes air puffs form 
after the operation. These should be punctured with a sharp 
knife. 

Ovariotomy, " Spaying." — The removal of the ovaries, or 
ovariotomy, is practised for the purpose of rendering the female 
more useful for meat production, prolonging the period of 
lactation, overcoming vicious habits and preventing oestrum or 
heat. The operation is commonly performed in the heifer and 
bitch, occasionally in the mare, and at present rarely in the sow. 

Heifers are usually spayed between the ages of eight and 
twelve months; the hitch and sow when a few months old, or 
before the periods of heat have begun. The mare is spayed 
when mature. It is' possible to spay the female at any age, but 
the ages mentioned are the most convenient. Pregnant animals 
should not be operated on. The season of the year makes little 



COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS 229 

difference in the results, providing the animal can he kept under 
close observation and given the necessars' care and treatment. 
The spring of the year, just before turning the herd on pasture, 
is the best season to spav heifers. 

All fnimals should be prepcired for the operation by with- 
holding feed and water for at least twenty-four hours before they 
are operated on, and it may be advisable to give them a physic. 
It is easier to operate when the intestinal tract is comparatively 
empty, and the death rate is lower than when the animal is not 
properly prepared for the operation. 

The method of operatmg is not the same in the different 
species. In young heifers and sows, the flank operation is pre- 
ferred, and in mares and cows, the vaginal operation. The 
median line operation is practised in bitches. A spaying emascu- 
lator, or ecraseur, are the special instruments used for removing 
the ovaries. 

The animal must be properly confined for the operation. 
Heifers are usually held in the standing position by fastening 
the head securely, and crowding the left side of the animal 
against a solid board partition, or side of a chute. If the vaginal 
operation is performed, the mare or cow may be confined in 
stocks. The bitch is usually anesthetized and placed on her 
back on a table that is inclined, so that the hind parts are 
elevated. 

Ovariotomy cannot be successfully performed by an un- 
trained and inexperienced operator. The necessary precautions 
against the infection of the part must be observed, in order to 
promote the healing of the wound and prevent peritonitis. The 
seat of the operation should be carefully cleaned and disinfected. 

Following the operation the animal should be fed a spare 
diet for a few days. This is a very necessary part of the care 
of the bitch. The general condition of the animal should be 
noted daily until there is no further danger from wound infec- 



230 SURGICAL DISEASES 

tion. Healing is usually completed in from seven to twelve 
days. The sutures should then be removed, and if stitch 
abscesses occur, the part should be washed with a disinfectant. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the purpose of dehorning cattle? Give different methods of 

removing the horns. 

2. Give the causes and treatment of choking. 

3. Wliat is the purpose of castration and ovariotomy? 

4. At what age is it best to practise castration and ovariotomy? 

5. In what way sliould an animal be prepared for castration? Give a de- 

scription of the method of castration in the different animals. 

6. \\Tiat special care should be given following castration? 

7. What are some of the complications that may follow castration? 



PART V 

PARASITIC DISEASES 



CHAPTER XXIV 
PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 

Pakasitic insects are common causes of skin diseases in 
domestic animals. The diseased conditions of the skin, and the 
irritation that thev may cause the animal, depend on the life 
history and habits of the parasite. Species that are unable to 
live independently of a host and are permanent parasites are 
usually the most injurious to the animal. This is especially 
true of parasites that are capable of puncturing the skin or 
burrowing into it. Temporary parasites may cause fatal forms 
of disease. This is true of the larva? of the sheep bot-fly, which 
develop in the sinuses of the head, causing severe inflammation 
of these parts, nervous symptoms and death. The character 
of the symptoms of the parasitic disease depends on the habits 
of th'^ parasite, and the tissue or organ that it may attack. 

The parasitic flies belong to the order Dipt era, and the 
families lluscidcp and (Esfridcp. Tleas belong to the sub-order 
Pulicidce. The order Hemipfera includes the lice, and the 
most important families are Pediculidce and Piicini-d'.v. ]\Iites 
and ticks belong to the order Acariiia. The most important 
parasites Itelonging to this order are the Sarcopiidce and Ixodidos. 

CEstridae. — The three common bot-flies are the Gastropliilus 
equij Hypoderma lineaia and CEsiru-s oris. These flies are 
important because of the parasitic habits of their larvae. They 
inhabit the stomach and intestines of horses (Tig. 62) ; the 
subcutaneous tissue and skin of cattle; and the sinuses of the 
head and nasal cavities of sheep. 

The common hot-fy of tlie liorse i G. equi ) has a heavy, hairy 
body. Its color is brown, with dark and yellowish spots. The 
female fly can be seen during the warm weather, hovering around 
the horse, and darting toward the animal for the purpose of 

233 



234 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



depositing the egg. The color of the egg is yellow, and it 
adheres firmly to the hair. It hatches in from two to four 
weeks, and the larva reaches the mouth through the animal lick- 
ing the part. From the mouth, it passes to the stomach, where 
it attaches itself to the gastric mucous membrane (Fig. 62).. 
Here it remains until fully developed, when it becomes detached 
and is passed out with the ffeces. The third stage is passed in the 




Fig. 62. — A piece of the wall of the horse's stomach showing the bot-fiy larvse attached. 

ground. This takes place in the spring and early summer 
and lasts for several weeks, when it finally emerges a mature fly. 
The hot-fly of the ox (H. lineata) is dark in color and about 
the size of a honey-bee. On warm days, the female may be seen 
depositing eggs on the body of the animal, especially in the 
region of the heels. This seems to greatly annoy the animal, 
and it is not uncommon for cattle to become stampeded. The 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 235 

egg reaches the mouth through the animal licking the part. The 
saliva dissolves the shell of the egg and the larva is freed. It 
then migrates from the gullet, wanders about in the tissue until 
finally it may reach a point beneath the skin of the back. Here 
the larva matures and forms the well-known swelling or warble. 
In the spring of the year it works out through the skin. The 
next stage is spent in the ground. The pupa state lasts several 
weeks, when the mature fly issues forth. 

The hot-fly of sheep (0. ovis) resembles an overgrown 
house-fly. Its general color is brown, and it is apparently lazy, 
flying about very little. This bot-fly makes its appearance when 
the warm weather begins, and deposits live larva? in the nostrils 
of sheep. This act is greatly feared by the animals, as shown 
by their crowding together and holding the head down. The 
larva works up the nasal cavities and reaches the sinuses of the 
head, where it becomes attached to the lining mucous membrane. 
In the spring, when fully developed, it passes out through the 
nasal cavities and nostrils, drops to the ground, buries itself, 
and in from four to six weeks develops into the mature fly. 

Symptoms of Bot-fly Diseases. — The larva? of the bot-fly 
of the horse do not cause characteristic symptoms of disease. 
Work horses that are groomed daily are not hosts for a large 
number of " bots," but young and old horses that are kept in a 
pasture or lot and seldom groomed may become unthrifty and 
'' pot bellied," or show symptoms of indigestion. 

Cattle suffer much pain from the development of the larvae 
of the H. lineata. During the spring of the year, the pain re- 
sulting from the presence of the larvae beneath the skin and the 
penetration of the skin is manifested by excitement and running 
about. Besides the loss in milk and beef production, there is a 
heavy yearly loss from the damage to hides. 

The parasitic life of the bot-fly of sheep results in a severe 
catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the 
sinuses of the head, and a discharge of a heavy, pus-like material 



236 PARASITIC DISEASES 

from the nostrils. The irritation produced by the larvse may be 
so serious at times as to result in nervous symptoms and death. 

Treatment of Bot-fiy Diseases. — The treatment of the differ- 
ent bot-fly diseases is largely preventive. This consists in either 
the destruction of the eggs or the larvrc. 

The different methods of destroying the eggs of the bot-fly 
of the horse are clipping the hair from the part, scraping off 
the eggs with a sharp knife, or destroying them by washing the 
part infested with eggs with a two or three per cent water solu- 
tion of carbolic acid. This should be practised every two weeks 
during the period when the female deposits the eggs. 

Housing the cattle, or applying water solutions of certain 
preparations to the skin that may keep the female from deposit- 
ing eggs, may be practised for the prevention of the ox-warble. 
The most practical method of ridding cattle of this pest is to 
destroy the larva:\ This can be done by examining each animal 
and locating the swelling or warble and injecting a few drops 
of kerosene into the opening in the skin. A better method is to 
enlarge the opening in the skin with a sharp knife, squeeze out 
the grub and destroy it. This should be practised in late winter 
and early spring. 

The application of pine tar to the nostrils of sheep is the 
most practical method of preventing " grub in the head." This 
should be practised every few days during the summer months. 
A very good preventive measure is plenty of shade for the flock. 
Valuable animals may be treated by trephining into the head 
sinus and removing the " grub." 

Lice. — The sucking lice belong to the genus Hcetnatopiniis, 
and the biting lice of mammals belong to the genus Trichodedes. 
Different species of sucking and biting lice occur on the different 
species of farm animals. Poultry act as hosts for many differ 
ent species of biting lice belonging to the following genuses: 
Lipiurus, Goniodes, Goniocotes and Menopon. 

The common sucMng lice occurring on animals are the large- 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 



237 



headed horse louse, H. macrocephalus ; the long-nosed ox louse, 
H. tenuirostris ; the large-bellied ox louse, H. eurysternus ; the 
H. stenopses of sheep ; H, suis of swine ; and the H. piliferus of 
the dog. 

The common biting lice (Fig. 63) that are found on domestic 
animals are the T. pilosus and T. puhescens of solipeds, T. 
scalaris of the ox, T. spoeroceplialus of sheep and goats, T. latus 
and T. suhrostratus of the dog and cat. Menopon palidum, 
Lipiurus variabilis and Gon- 
oides dissimilis are the com- 
mon lice found on poultry. 

Symptoms of Lice. — The 
symptoms of lousiness depend 
on the variety of lice present, 
the degree to which the ani- 
mal is infested with them, its 
physical condition and the 
care that it receives. Lice 
multiply more rapidly and 
cause greater loss during the 
winter months than they do 
in the summer, when the 
animals are not housed and 
the opportunity for infection 
from the surroundings is not 
so great. The sucking louse (Fig. 64) is the most inj virions 
and irritating. The irritation and loss of blood that the animal 
may suffer when badly infested by this parasite may result 
in marked unthriftiness. Young and old animals that are not 
well cared for suffer most. The biting louse may bite through 
the superficial layer of the skin, and cause the animal to bite 
and rub the part. This irritation to the skin prevents the 
animal from becoming rested, and after a time seriously inter- 
feres with its thriftiness. 




Fig. 63. — Biting louse. 



238 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



Horses and mules show a staring, dirty, rough coat. The 
mane and tail may become broken and matted. The animal 
rubs against the stall, fences and trees, and bites the skin in its 
efforts to relieve the irritation. On examining the coat, nits are 
found adhering to the hair (Fig. 65). We should examine the 
parts of the skin covered by the long hair for the sucking lice ; 
and the withers, abdomen and limbs for the biting lice. 





FiQ. 64. — Sucking louse (much enlarged). 



Fig. (jo. — Nits attached to hair (much 
enlarged). 



The symptoms of lousiness in cattle are about the same as 
occur in horses. Licking and rubbing the skin are prominent 
symptoms in cattle, and the coat becomes dirty and rough. The 
licked part is matted and curled. The lice may be discovered 
by parting the hair along tlie back and rump. 

The biting louse of sheep causes the fleece to become matted 
and tufts of wool are pulled out. This is brought about by the 
sheep rubbing and nibbling the fleece, and the lice cutting 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 239 

through the wool. The loss due to the damage to the fleece is 
usually greater than that resulting from unthriftiness. 

The hog-louse is the largest specie known. As well as the 
largest, it is the most common of all lice found on domestic ani- 
mals. The favorite points of attack are the under surface of 
the body, the neck and the inside of the thighs. The irritation 
and itching are severe, and the hog rubs and scratches the skin. 
Young hogs suffer most from this parasite, and their thriftiness 
is greatly interfered with. 

The long-haired breeds of dogs suffer more from lice than 
the short-haired breeds. The almost constant scratching and 
biting of the skin result in its becoming badly irritated and 
scabby. The symptoms differ little from irritation to the skin 
caused by fleas, but the presence of biting or sucking lice en- 
ables the person making the examination to determine the cause 
of the irritation. 

Lice are the most common parasites of poultry. It is un- 
common to meet with a flock of fowls that are not hosts for one 
or more of the many different varieties of bird lice. Restless- 
ness, picking, scratching, flapping the wings, abandoning the 
nest and loss of condition are common symptoms. Young birds 
suffer most from lice. This is especially true of young chickens, 
death frequently resulting. Old fowls may show little incon- 
venience unless badly infested. The finding of the lice with the 
head imbedded in the skin or on the feathers enables the person 
making the examination to positively diagnose the case. The 
head, back, region of the vent and beneath the wings are the 
parts that should be carefully examined for lice. 

Treatment of Lousiness. — The preventive treatment is very 
important. This consists in carefully examining all animals 
or birds that have been purchased recently, and if found to 
harbor lice, excluding them from the herd or flock until after 
they have been properly treated. 

It is impossible to rid animals of lice if the quarters are not 



240 PARASITIC DISEASES 

thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. This is necessary in order 
to destroy lice that have become scattersd about by the lousy 
animals, and prevent the reinfection of the treated animals. 
The best method to use in cleaning the quarters is to remove all 
litter and manure from the stable or houses and their immediate 
surroundings. It should be burned, or hauled to a field or lot 
where other animals cannot come in contact with it for a few 
months. The walls, floors and partitions should be sprayed 
with a three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus. 
Lime may be scattered about the buildings, yards and runs. 
The most satisfactory method of destroying lice on the bodies 
of animals is by washing or dipping in a water solution or 
mixture of some reliable disinfectant or oil. 

Bunning hogs through a clipping tank that contains a one 
or two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or a 
coal tar disinfectant, or that has from three-fourths to one and 
one-half inches of oil on top of the water, is the most satisfactory 
method of destroying the hog louse. Because of the thinness of 
the hog's coat and the danger from irritating the skin when 
strong solutions of a disinfectant are used, most swine breeders 
prefer crude oil as a remedy for lousiness in hogs. Crude oil 
may be applied to the bodies of hogs with a swab. If this method 
is practised instead of dipping, it is advisable to crowd the 
hogs into a small pen, and apply the oil in front and between 
the thighs and back of the arms. This may be practised during 
the cold weather when it is impossible to dip the animals. 

Horses may be washed with a one or two per cent water 
solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or a coal tar disinfectant. 
If the weather is cold, it is advisable to pick a sunny day, and 
blanket tlie animal after rubbing it as dry as possible in order to 
prevent chilling and catching cold. 

Cattle may be treated in the same manner as horses. Mercu- 
rial ointment rubbed in small amounts on the skin back of the 
horns and ears, where the animal cannot lick it, is a common 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 



241 



remedy. The absorption of a small amoimt of this drug does the 
animal no harm, hnt a larger qnantitj may salivate it. 

Sheep are treated by dipping in a water solution of a reliable 
coal tar disinfectant. This should not be practised during cold 
weather, as the fleece does not dry ont. Insect powder may be 
dnsted into the fleece when it is impossible to dip the animal. 

A very satisfactory treatment for lousiness in dogs and cats 
is to wash them with carbolized soap. We should wait a few 
minutes before rinsing off the soapy lather and dr^dng the coat. 

A number of different remedies are used for the treatment 
of lousiness in poultry. Dust 
baths and insect powder are 
recommended. Ointments are 
commonly used. One part sul- 
fur and four parts vaseline, or 
lard, may be made into an oint- 
ment and applied to the head, 
neck, under the wings and 
around the vent. Mercurial 
ointment may be applied to the 
margin of the vent. IST either 
of them should be used for de- 
stroying lice on young chicks. . Mercuiial ointment should be 
used very carefully because of its poisonous effect. Lard may 
be used for destroying lice on young chicks. Crude petroleum 
m.ay be sprayed among the feathers by a hand-sprayer, while 
the fowls are suspended by the feet. 

Xone of the disinfectants and oils xecommended for dipping 
and washing lousy animals destroy the nits. This makes it 
necessary to re-treat the animal in from eight to ten days after 
the flrst treatment. 

The Sheep-tick. — This is not a true tick. It resembles a fly 
more than it does a tick, and its right name is Melophagus 
ovinus (Tig. 66). Louse-fly is a better name for this parasite 
16 




Fig. 66. — Sheep-tick. 



242 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



than tick, as its entire life is spent on tlie body of a slieep. The 
general color of tlie body is brown. The legs are stout, covered 
with hair and armed with hooks at their extremities. The mouth 
parts consist of a tubular, toothed proboscis witli which the para- 
site punctures the skin and sucks the blood. Within a few hours 
after birth, the larvffi develop into pupa^, which are hard, dark 
brown in color and firmly glued to the wool. The young louse- 
fly emerges from the pupa in 
from tliree to four weeks. 

The sheep-tick is a very 
common external parasite. 
The adult parasites and the 
pupiu are large and easily 
found. When badly infested 
with ticks, a sheep will rub, 
dig and scratch the skin and 
fleece. This results in pieces 
of wool becoming pulled out 
and the fleece appears ragged. 
After clipping the ticks mi- 
grate from the ewes to the 
lambs, which may become un- 
thrifty and weak. 

The treatment consists in 
dipping the flock in a one or 
two per cent water solution of a coal-tar dip. Dips containing 
arsenic are most effective in ridding sheep of ticks. 

Scabies. — This parasitic disease is one of the oldest and 
most prevalent diseases of the skin. It is commonly known as 
scab or mange. The animals most commonly affected are sheep, 
horses and cattle. 

The disease is caused by small mites or acari that are natu- 
rally divided into the Sarcoptes, which burrow under the epi- 
dermis, forming galleries ; the Psoropte.s, which live on the sur- 




FiQ. 67. — Sheep scab mite, ventral view. 
(From Farmers' Bulletin No. 159, United 
Statea Department of Agriculture.) 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 



243 



face of the skin where they are sheltered by scabs and scurf ; and 
the Symbiotes^ which also live on the surface of the skin, but 
prefer the regions of the hind feet and legs. 

Acari multiply rapidly and live their entire life on the body 
of the host. A new generation is produced in about fifteen days. 
Gerlach has estimated the natural increase in three months at 
1,000,000 females and 500,000 males. Scab and mange are 
exceedingly contagious diseases. 






Fig. 68. — Sheep scab. 

Common sheep scab is caused by that specie of mites known 
as the Psoroptes communis var. ovis (Fig. 67). Any part of the 
body may become affected. The bites of the mites greatly 
irritate the skin, and the animal scratches, bites and rubs the part 
in its effort to relieve the intense itching. The skin becomes in- 
flamed and scabby, the wool is pulled and rubbed out, and the 
fleece becomes ragged (Fig. 68). By pulling wool out of the 
newly infested area, or collecting skin scrapings and placing 
this material on black paper in a sunny, warm place, the mites 



244 PARASITIC DISEASES 

may be seen crawling over the paper. This nietliod of diagnosis 
should he resorted to in all suspicions cases of skin disease, and 
before the disease has developed to any great extent. 

The mite that most commonly canses mange in cattle is the 
Psoroptes communis var. bonis. It may invade the skin in the 
different regions of the body, but it is in the regions of the tail 
and thighs that the first evidence of the mange is noticed. The 
animal rubs, scratches, and licks the part. The itching is intense. 
The hair over the part is lost and the skin appears inflamed, 
thickened, moist, or covered v^^ith white crusts. Cracks and sores 
may form in the skin. The examination of scrapings from the 
inflamed skin should be practised in order to confirm the 
diagnosis. 

Mange in horses may be caused by either psoroptic or 
sarcoptic mites. Psoroptes communis var. equi seems to be the 
more common parasite. The itching. is intense. The inflamed 
areas are small at first and scattered over the regions of the 
rump, back and neck (Fig. 69). After a time the small areas 
come together and form large patches, and further spreading of 
the inflammation results from grooming, scratching and biting 
the skin. Scattered, elevated eruptions on the skin from which 
the hair has dropped out are first noticed. These parts may 
show yellowish scabs. Later the skin is thickened, smooth, 
wrinkled, cracked, or covered with sores. Scrapings made from 
the inflamed areas of the skin may show the psoroptic mites. 

Mange in hogs is comparatively rare. It is caused by one of 
the sarcoptic mites. The thin portions of the skin are usually 
first invaded. There are violent itching and rubbing, and small, 
red elevations occur on the skin in the region of the ears, eyelids 
or inner surface of the thighs, depending on the part first in- 
vaded. The skin becomes greatly thickened and covered with 
crusts and scabs. Pus formation and ulceration may occur. 

Treatment of Scab and Mange. — A careful inspection of 
recently purchased animals that pass through stockyards, or are 
shipped from sections where scab and mange are common skin 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 245 

diseases, is an important preventive measure. Infected animals 
should be completely isolated from the herd, and kept apart from 
other animals until after they have been treated. Hogs that are 
slightly infected should be quarantined and treated. If badly 
affected, they should be killed, and the carcass disposed of by 
burning or burying. 



Fig. 69. — A suvore case of mange. 

The different remedies used in the treatment of the disease 
may be applied by dipping, hand dressing or washing, pouring, 
smearing and spotting. The first method is the most satisfactory. 
The last method may be used when a small area of the skin is 
involved, and during the cold weather. Washing or dipping 
the animal with a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis 
compositus is an effective remedy for the psoroptic forms of 



246 PARASITIC DISEASES 

scab and mange. Tobacco, lime and sulfur, and arsenical dips 
are recommended in the treatment of sheep and cattle. Oint- 
ments are recommended for animals that are slightly affected 
with mange. Lime and sulfur dips are recommended by the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. Small infected areas of the skin 
may be treated by applying sulfur-iodide ointment. The fol- 
lowing ointment is commonly reconmiended : potassium sulfide 
ten parts, potassium carbonate two parts, and lard three hun- 
dred parts. 

Sheep cannot be safely dipped for scab during the cold 
weather. If thickened and scabby, the skin should be scrubbed 
with the dip, or the animal prepared for dipping or washing by 
first clipping the hair or wool and scrubbing the skin with water 
and a good soap. In order to prevent reinfection, it is necessary 
to remove the animal to new quarters, or thoroughly clean and 
disinfect the old. It is uecessay to wash or spray the fences, 
floors, walls, brushes and curry-combs with a disinfecting solu- 
tion. Manure and other litter should be removed to a place 
where there is no danger from its distributing the infection. 

Diseases of Poultry Caused by Mites. — Mites or acarina 
that cause diseases of poultry may live on the feathers, beneath 
the skin, and within the body of the fowl. 

Tlie small, red mile {Dermanyssus gallinw) remains on the 
surface of the body only when feeding, and spends the rest of the 
time under collections of filth and in cracks in the roosts and 
walls of the house. This parasite causes the birds to become 
restless, emaciated and droopy. 

A very small mite (Sarcoptes mutans) is the cause of scaly 
leg. It lives under the skin. The joints of the feet appear 
affected, and the foot and leg become enlarged, roughened and 
scaly. 

Depluming scabies is caused by Sarcoptes la'vis var. gallincB. 
This mite causes the feathers to break off at the surface of the 
skin. Masses of epidermic scales may form around the broken 



PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES 247 

ends of the feathers. The diagnosis can be confirmed by 
examining the skin lesions and finding the mite. 

The air sac mite {Cytodites nudus) may cause sufficient 
irritation to the mucous membrane lining the air sacs to seri- 
ously obstruct the air passages with mucus, or produce death 
from exhaustion. A post-mortem examination of a fowl that 
has died of this disease shows the mites on the surface of the 
lining membrane of the air-sacs. They appear as a white or 
yellow dust. 

Treatment of Poultry. Diseases Caused by Mites. — Diseases 
of poultry caused by mites may be prevented by quarantining all 
recently purchased birds for a period of from two to four weeks, 
and by keeping the poultry houses clean. Birds that are found 
infested with parasites should be destroyed or returned. In 
case the bird is valuable and suffering from external parasites 
only, it should be given the necessary treatment. 

Bed mites may he destroyed by thoroughly cleaning the poul- 
try house, and spraying the roosts, nests, walls and floor with a 
three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus. This 
should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. 

Scaly-leg may he treated by applying a penetrating oil to the 
feet and lower part of the leg. It is advisable to first remove 
the scales by scrubbing the part with soap and warm water. 
Dipping the feet in a mixture of kerosene one part and linseed 
oil two parts is recommended. This should be repeated as often 
as necessary. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the different bot-flies. 

2. Give the life history of the bot-fly of the horse; of the ox; of sheep. 

3. Give tlie symptoms of bot-fly diseases. 

4. Give the symptoms of lousiness. 

5. Give treatment for lousiness of diff'erent farm animals. 

6. What is the damage from the sheep-tick? Give treatment. 

7. Describe the injury from scabies and mange. 

8. Give treatments for these diseases. 

9. Mention the several poultry mites and tell how to treat them. 



CHAPTER XXV 

ANIMAL PARASITES 

'^I'liK coniinoii j);ir:isili(' discMscs of (loiucstic. aiiiiimls are 
caused hv I lie lollowiiii*' i>,r()U|)KS of worms: Flukes or irevia- 
iotdes; la/icirornis or Cesloides; IJiorri-lieaded irorws or AcanUio- 
cephales; and roiivd-ivoriiis or N ematoids. Flat worms, such as 
tapcworuis ;iiid llukcs, i'('(|iiiro socoiidarv liosts. I'lio iiiiiiiiitnro 
and uiaturc forms of tapeworuis arc parasites of vertcbi'ate 
animals, but an invertebrate host is necessary f<u' the completion 

of the life cycle of the 
11 like. 'I'lie hog is the 
only speciie of domestic 
animals that becomes 
a host for the thorn- 
h(nided worm. T h e 
round-worm is a very 
common p a r a s i t e. 
There arc many spe- 
cies belonging to this 
class. 

Distoma Hepati- 
cum (Common Liver 
Fluke). — Sheep are the most common hosts for this parasite. It 
is present in the gall ducts and livers, and causes a disease of the 
liver known as liver rot. The liver lluke is flat or leaf-like and 
from thirteen to fifteen mm. long (Fig. 70). The head portion is 
conical. It has an oval and ventral sucker, and the body is cov- 
ered with scaly spines. The eggs are oval and brownish in color. 
Tlic life Inslonj, in brief, is as follows: Kacli adult is capa- 
l)le of producing an innncnse number of eggs which are carried 
down the bile ducts with the bile to the intestine, and are passed 
oif with the faeces. Under favorable conditions for incubation, 
248 




Fig. 70. — Liver (lukea. 



AJv'IMAL PARABITES 249 

Bueli as warm, moist Burroiiiidings, the ova or eggs liateli and tlie 
ciliated embryos become freed. The embryo next penetrates 
into the body of eertain snails and encysts. Tbe sporocyst^ as it 
is now called, develops into a tbird generation kno\\Ti as recfia 
wbicb escape from the cyst. The daughter redia or cercaria, 
as they are now termed, leave the body of the snail and finally 
become encysted on the stmns of grass, cresses and weeds. When 
taken into the digestive tract of the animal grazing over in- 
fested gronnd, the immature flukes are freed by the digestive 
juices. They then pass from the intestine into the bile ducts. 
The period of development varies from ten to twenty weeks; 
each sporoeyBt may give rise to from five to eight redia and each 
redia to from twelve to twenty cercaria. 

Fluke diseases occur among animals pastured on low, wet, 
undrained land. Drv'ing ponds and lakes are the homes of the 
fresh water snails, and in such places there are plenty of hos-ts 
for the immature flukes. Wet seasons favor the development of 
this parasite. Cattle and sheep that pasture on river bottom 
land in certain sections of the southern portion of the United 
States are frequently afieeted with fluke dis^Bee. 

The symptoms of liver roi of slieep may be divided into two 
stages. The first slage is marked by increase in weight and 
improved condition. Li the second stage of the disease, the 
animal shows a pale skin and m.ucouB membrane, dropsical 
swellings, loss of flesh and weakness. The character of the 
SA-mptoms of the disease depends on the age of the animals and 
the care that they receive. Toung, poorly eared for animals 
suffer severely from the disease, and the death rate is usually 
heavy. The finding of fluke ova in the faeces is conclusive evi- 
dence of the nature of the disease. It may be advisable to kill 
one of the sick animals, and determine the nature of the disease 
by a post-mortem exa mi nation. 

The treatment is preventive. DrsmiSL^ water from a pasture 
infested vrith snails harboring immature flukes is a source of 



250 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



Fia. 

71. 



FlQ. 

72 




Fig. 71. — Tapeworms. 
Fig. 72. — Tapeworm larvae in liver {Echinococcus polymorphus). 

infection, and should not be nsed as a water supply for cattle 
and sheep. In sections where the disease is prevalent, sheep 
should not be pastured on low, poorly-drained land. Such land 



ANIMAL PARASITES 251 

should be used for pasturing horses and cattle, but if possible, 
it should be first drained and cultivated. Careful feeding and 
good care may help the affected animals to recover. 

Tapeworms or Cestoides. — Tapeworms are formed by a 
chain of segments, joined together at their ends, and are flat or 
ribbon-shaped (Fig. Tl). The head segment is small, and 
possesses either hooks or suckers. It is by these that the worm 
attaches itself to the lining membrane of the intestine. The 







Fig. 73. — Tapeworm larva in the peritoneum (.Cysticercus cellulosa) 

anterior segments are smaller and less mature than the posterior 
segments. Each segment is sexually complete, possessing both 
the male and female organs, and when mature, one or more of 
them break off and are passed out with the fa?ces. The mature or 
ripe segments are filled with ova. On reaching the digestive 
tract of a proper host, usually with the drinking water or fodder, 
the embryo is freed from the egg. The armed embryo uses its 
booklets in boring its way through the wall of the intestine. It 
then wanders through the tissues of its host until it finally 
reaches a suitable place for development (Figs. 72 and 73). On 



252 PARASITIC DISEASES 

coming to rest, it develops into the larva or bladder-worm, which 
when eaten by a proper host gives rise to the mature tapeworm. 
The following tables give the most important tapeworms : 
Adult Forms 

Name Host Organ 

Taenia expansa Sheep and ox Intestine 

Taenia fimbriata Sheep Liver 

Taenia denticuhita Cattle Intestine 

Taenia alba Cattle Intestine 

Tipnia perfoliata Solipeds Intestine 

Taenai mamillana Solipeds Intestine 

Taenia echinococcus Dog Intestine 

Larval Forms 
Name Host 

Cysticercus bovis Cattle 

Cysticercus cellulosa Swine and man 

Cysticercus tennicollis Cattle, sheep and swine 

Coenurus cerebralis Cattle and sheep 

Echinococcus polymorphus Cattle, siieep, swine and man 

The adult tapeworms Tcenice saginata and soleuiii, of which 
the Cysticerci bovis and cellulosa are the larva? forms, occur in 
man. The larvae are present in meat and pork, and this form of 
parasitism is termed beef measles in cattle and pork measles in 
hogs. Man becomes host for these two forms of tapeworms 
through eating measlj j^ork or beef that is not properly cooked. 

The dog is the host for Tamice marginata, coenurus and 
echinococcus. The larva? forms of these tcenice are the Cysti- 
cercus tennicollis, Camurus cerebralis and Ecliinococcus poly- 
morphus. The C. tennicollis is a parasite of the serous or lining 
membranes of the body cavities. It is not of very great economic 
importance. The C. cerebralis is a parasite of the brain of 
sheep, and may cause a heavy death rate in flocks that are in- 
fested with it. The E. ])olymorphus is a parasite of the liver, but 
it may occur in other organs. 

The Thorn-headed Worm or Acanthocephale. — This para- 
site requires a secondary host. In this case a particular species 
of the May-beetle larva or white grub that is commonly found 
about manure piles and in clover pastures is the host. The 
bog eats a white grub that is host for the lar^^al form. The 



ANIMAL PARASITES 253 

digestive juices free the larva, it then becomes attached to the 
intestinal mucous membrane and develops into the adult thorn- 
headed worm (Fig, 74). This parasite is characterized by a 
hooked proboscis or thorn at its anterior extremity, and the 
absence of a distinct digestive tract. The male is much smaller 
than the female. The eggs are passed out of the intestine with 
the faeces. 




Fig. 74. — Thorn-headed worms. 

The Round-worms or Nematoids. — Round-worms are very 
common parasites of domestic animals (Fig. 75). This group 
of worms is characterized by their cylindrical form, the presence 
of a true digestive canal and the separation into two sexes, male 
and female. The life history is more simple than in the flat 
worms. Intermediate hosts are not required for the develop- 
ment of the common forms. The eggs and embryos are deposited 
by the female in the intestinal tract, air passages, or excretory 
ducts of the kidneys of the host. Development may be com- 
pleted here, or the eggs and embryos are passed off with the body 
excretions. They may live for a short time outside the animal 



254 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



body, or undergo certain development and again infest a host of 
the same species from which they came, through the water, grass 
and fodder that the animal may take into its digestive tract. 




Fig. 75. — -Large round- worm in intestine, of hog. 

The following species of nematoids are common parasites 
of domestic animals : 

SOLIPEDS 
Species Organ 

Ascaris megalocephala Tiitestijies 

Sclerostoma equinum Large intestine and blood-vessels 

Sclerostoma tetracanthum Large intestine 

Oxyrus curvula Large intestine 

Oxyrus mastigodes Large intestine 

Cattle 

Species Organ 

Strongylus convolutus Abomasum 

Ascaris vituli Small intestine (calves) 

Strongylus ventricosiis Small intestine 

CEsophagostomum inliatum Large intestine 

Trichocephalus affins Large intestine 

Strongylus micrurus Bronchi 

Strongylus pulmonaris Bronchi 



ANIMAL PARASITES 255 

Sheep 

Species Organ 

Hsemonchus contortus Abomasum 

Ascaris ovis : Small intestine 

Strongylus filicollis Small intestine 

CEsophagostomum columbianum Intestines 

Uncinaria cernua Small intestine 

Triehocephalus affins Large intestine 

Strongylus filaria Bronchi 

Strongylus ruiescens Bronchi and air follicles 

Swine 
Species Organ 

Ascaris suis Intestines 

CEsophagostomum dentatum Large intestine 

Triehocephalus crenatus Large intestine 

Trichina spiralis Muscles and intestines 

Strongylus paradoxus Trachea and bronchi 

Sclerostoma pingencola Renal fat and kidney 

POULTKY 
Species Organ 

Ascaris inflexa Intestine 

Spiroptera hamulosa Gizzard 

Heterakis papillosa Csecum 

Syngamus trachealis Trachea and bronchi 

Intestinal Worms of Solipeds. — The large round-worms or 
ascarides and tlie sclerostomes are the most injurious intestinal 
parasites of solipeds. The A. megalocephala or large round- 
worm is from 5 to 15 inches (12 to 35 cm.) long. It may be 
present in the double colon in such large numbers as to form 
an entangled mass that completely fills a portion of the loop in 
which it is lodged. It may interfere with digestion by obstruct- 
ing the passage of alimentary matter, and irritating the intestine. 

The S. equinum and *S'. tetracanthum are small worms. The 
former sclerostoma is from 0.6 to 1.5 inches (18 to 35 mm.) 
long, and the latter is from 0.5 to 0.6 inch (8 to 17 mm.) long. 
Both sclerostomes attach themselves to the lining membrane of 
the intestine by their mouth parts, and suck blood. The young 
S. equinum may live in tumor-like cysts that they cause to form 
in the lining membrane of the intestine. The young worm may 
penetrate the wall of a small blood-vessel as well, and drift 
into a large vessel, where it may become lodged and undergo 



256 PARASITIC DISEASES 

partial development. The irritation to the blood-vessel results 
in an inflammation and dilation of the vessel wall. This is 
termed verminous anenrism. A portion of the iibrin-like lining 
of the anenrism may flake off and drift along- in the blood stream, 
until finally a vessel tliat is too small for the floating particle or 
embolus to pass through is reached. The vessel is then plugged 
or a thrombus is formed. If the vessel involved by the thrombus 
happens to be a mesenteric vessel, then a loop of intestine has 
its blood supply cut off, and colicky pains result. Such colics are 
dangerous, and may terminate fatally. Intestinal obstruction, 
thrombo-embolic colics, unthriftiness and a weakened, anaemic 
condition may be caused by intestinal worms. 

The treatment is both preventive and medicinal. The pre- 
ventive treatment consists in giving young, growing animals 
the best care possible. Cleanliness about the stable, giving the 
colt plenty of range when running in a pasture, and feeding a 
ration that is sufficient to keep the colt in good physical condition 
are the important preventive measures. Tartar emetic in one- 
half to one dram doses may be given with the feed daily until 
five or six doses are given. Turpentine may be given in one to 
three ounce doses in a pint of linseed oil. This may be repeated 
daily for two or three days. Worms located in the posterior 
bowel may be removed by rectal injections of a weak water infu- 
sion of quassia chips. The rectum should be first emptied with 
the hand, and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward 
with the hand as possible. The injections should be repeated 
daily for several days. 

Intestinal Worms of Cattle. — lutestinal worms seldom 
cause serious losses from unthriftiness or death in cattle. It is 
in calves only that we are called on to treat this class of disease. 
The symptoms resulting from the invasion of the intestinal tract 
by the different worms vary in severity according to the number, 
habits of the parasite and care that the animal receives. The 
usual symptoms are unthriftiness, indigestion, diarrhoea and a 



ANIMAL PARASITES 257 

stunted, ana?mic condition. Stiles reported extreme anaemia, 
unthriftiness and many deaths among cattle in a certain section 
of Texas, due to extensive infection with the Uncinaria radiatus. 

The treatment is largely preventive. Calves and yearlings 
should be provided with plenty of feed at all seasons of the year. 
Good care and careful feeding will keep them in a thrifty, 
healthy condition and enable them to throw off invasions of 
intestinal worms. Turpentine is the vermifuge usually admin- 
istered to calves. The dose is from two to four drams given in a 
milk or raw linseed oil emulsion. 

Stomach Worm of Sheep. — The twisted stomach worm, 
Hwmonchus contortus^ is the most injurious internal parasite 
of sheep. It is a very small, hair-like worm from 0.4 to 1 inch 
(9 to 25 mm.) in length. In the adult form it attaches itself 
to the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach or abomasum, 
and lives by sucking blood. The blood present in the digestive 
tract of the worm gives it a brown color, and the white oviducts 
which are wound around the digestive canal cause the body to 
appear twisted. When the twisted stomach worm is present in 
large numbers, the worms become mixed with the contents of the 
stomach and can be readily found on making a post-mortem 
examination. 

Symptoms of stomach worms are first manifest in the 
lambs (Fig. 76). It is not until early summer that the disease 
appears in the flock. The symptoms are not characteristic un- 
less we consider an unthrifty, antemic, weak, emaciated condi- 
tion accompanied by diarrha?a during the summer months char- 
acteristic of stomach-worm disease. The sick animals are unable 
to keep up with the flock, and they like to stand about in the 
shade. They move slowly, the back is arched, the appetite poor, 
the mucous membranes and skin are pale and the hind parts 
soiled by the diarrhoeal discharge. More acute symptoms than 
the above sometimes occur. The disease may last from a few 
days to several weeks. A large percentage of the affected ani- 
mals die. 
17 



258 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



The treatment is largely preventive. Frequent changing of 
pastures and dry lot feeding are common preventive measures. 
Permanent sheep pastures lead to heavy losses from stomach 
worm disease. A very effective preventive measure, as we may 
term it, is the practice of administering a vermifuge to the ewes 
in the late summer and again in early winter. This may be 
given in a drench, or with the feed. This prevents the reinfec- 
tion of the pastures every spring, and the young lambs are not 




Fia. 76. — Lamb aflected with stomach worm disease. 

exposed to this form of infection. The most effective treatment 
that the writer has ever used is the following formula recom- 
mended by Dr. Law : Arsenous acid one dram, sulfate of iron 
five drams, powdered areca nut two ounces, common salt four 
ounces. This is sufficient for one dose for thirty sheep. It may 
be given with the salt, or in ground feed. If the flock is appar- 
ently healthy, four doses given at intervals of three days is 
sufficient. If s^onptoms of stomach worms are manifested the 



ANIMAL PARASITES 259 

animals should be dosed daily until they have received from five 
to ten doses, depending on the condition of the animal. 

Intestinal Worms of Sheep. — The most widely distributed 
and seemingly most injurious intestinal worm of sheep is the 
(E sophagostomum columhianum. It is a small worm from 0.5 
to 0.75 inch (12 to 18 mm.) long. It penetrates the lining mem- 
brane of the intestines and encysts in the intestinal wall. A 
tumor, varying in size from that of a millet seed to a hazelnut, 
then forms in the wall of the intestine. These tumors undergo 
a cheesy degeneration, and when they are mature, may appear 
as greenish, cheesy-like masses, covering a large portion of the 
lining membrane of the intestine. Diarrhoea and emaciation 
may result. These symptoms are most evident during the winter 
months. 

The treatment recommended for ridding sheep of this in- 
testinal worm is largely preventive. Very little can be done 
with the medicinal treatment of a sheep whose intestinal tract is 
badly infested with this parasite. Good care and the feeding 
of a proper ration are the only curative measures that are effec- 
tive in such cases. The occasional administration of a vermi- 
fuge for the purpose of ridding the digestive tract of worms, 
together with the frequent changing of pastures during the 
spring and summer, are the most effective preventive lines of 
treatment. The same treatment recommended for stomach 
worms may be used for this disease. 

Intestinal Parasites of Hogs. — The Ascaris suis or common 
round worm is very commonly found in the small intestine. It 
is quite frequently found in large numbers, almost filling the 
lumen of the intestine of an unthrifty pig (Fig. 75). It may 
also work its way into the bile duct. Sometimes, after a hog has 
died, this parasite migrates forward into the stomach and gullet. 
The A. suis is from 4 to 10 inches (10 to 26 cm.) long. 

The E chinorhynchus gigas or thorn-headed worm is the 
most dangerous of all intestinal worms (Fig. 74). It is usually 
found with its proboscis or thorn imbedded in the wall of the 



260 



PARASITIC DISEASES 



small intestine. The Echinorhjnchus is not as common a parasite 
as the Ascaride, and it is not usually present in large numbers. 
Usually, not more than a half-dozen of these worms are found 
in the intestine of a hog, but in some localities and in hogs that 
are allowed to root around manure piles and in clover pastures 
the herd may become badly infected with them and serious 
losses occur. The average length of the male is about 3 inches 
(8 cm.) and the female 10 inches (26 cm.). 

The Trlclioceplialus crenahis or whip ivorm (Fig. YY) is 
slender or hair-like in its anterior two-thirds and thick pos- 





FlG. 77. ^Whip-worms attached to wall of intestine. Fig. 78. — Fin-worms in intestine. 

teriorly. It is from 1.5 to 2 inches (40 to 45 mm.) long. It 
is found in the caecum attached to the wall by the hair-like 
portion. 

The Q^Jsopluujostomum. dentatum or pin uwrm is from 0.3 to 
0.6 inch (8 to 15 mm.) long. It is found in the large intestine 
(Fig. 78). 

The symptoms of intestinal worms are not very evident in 
the average drove of hogs. ISTone of the other farm animals are 
such common hosts for intestinal worms as hogs. But it is only 
in extreme cases of infection by intestinal worms, and in stunted 
and poorly-cared-for hogs, that very noticeable symptoms of 



ANIMAL PARASITES 261 

disease are manifested. We must not take from the above state- 
ment that it is unnecessary to resort to treatment unless in ex- 
ceptional cases. Intestinal worms interfere with the growth of 
young hogs, and may irritate and inflame the intestine, causing 
chronic indigestion, nervous symptoms, and in some cases 
death. This irritated and inflamed condition of the intestine is 
best noted in the abattoir by the ease with which the wall of 
the intestine that contains large numbers of worms tears when 
handling it. 

The treatment of intestinal worms in hogs is both preventive 
and medicinal. If the conditions in the pens and houses are 
such as to enable the eggs and embryos to live for a long time, 
or the surroundings are favorable for infection of the animals 
through their feed and water supply, the herd may become badly 
infested with intestinal parasites. The preventive treatment 
consists in keeping hogs in clean, well-drained yards or pastures, 
and feeding them from clean troughs and concrete feeding floors 
that can be washed, when necessary, in order to keep them clean. 
Turpentine, given in a milk emulsion, is a common remedy for 
intestinal worms in hogs. The dose is one teaspoonful for 
every eighty pounds weight. This dose should be repeated daily 
for three days. The following vermifuge can be recommended : 
Santonin three to five grains, calomel five to eight grains. This 
is sufficient for one hundred pounds weight. If the pigs are 
small and it requires two or three to weigh one hundred pounds, 
the large dose should be given. If the hogs weigh one hundred 
pounds or more, they should receive the small dose. The drove 
should be divided into lots of ten or fifteen hogs each. The 
drugs should be mixed and divided into the same number of 
powders as there are lots of hogs. Ground feed is placed in the 
trough, dampened with milk, or water and the powder sprinkled 
evenly over it. The hogs are then allowed to eat the feed. It is 
best to dose them in the morning after they have been off feed 
for ten or twelve hours. 



262 PARASITIC DISEASES 

Verminous Bronchitis in Calves.— The lung worms of cattle, 
Strongylus micrurus and Strongijhis pulmonaris, may cause 
heavy losses' in calves and yearlings. Older cattle may harbor 
these parasites, Lut they do not seem to be inconvenienced by 
them. The S. micrurus is from 1 to 3 inches (25 to 75 mm.) 
long. The ;S'. imhnonaris is smaller. It is from 0.4 to 1.3 inches 
(10 to 35 mm.) long. They are found in the trachea and small 
bronchial tubes, where they are mixed with mucous secretions 
from the inflamed lining membrane of the bronchial tubes. 

Wet seasons and low, wet pastures are said to favor the 
development of lung worms. Their life history is not fully 
understood. They do not persist generation after generation 
in the air passages of an animal, but the eggs and embryos are 
expelled and live for a time outside of the animal, when they 
may again become parasites of another or the same host. 

The symptoms are the same as occur in bronchitis and pneu- 
monia. Calves and yearlings are the only animals in the herd 
that may show symptoms of the disease. The air passages be- 
come irritated and inflamed, and the calf shows a slight cough. 
As the inflammation increases and the worms and mucous secre- 
tions plug up the small bronchial tubes, the coughing spells 
become more severe and rattling, wheezing sounds may be heard 
on auscultating the lungs. The calf finally loses its appetite, 
becomes emaciated and weak, and wanders off alone. It is 
usually found lying down and shows labored breathing that is 
occasionally interrupted by paroxysmal coughing. The death 
rate in poorly-cared-for herds is heavy. 

Verminous Bronchitis and Pneumonia of Sheep. — The two 
lung worms of sheep are the Strongylus filaria and Strongylus 
rufescens. The former is from 1.3 to 3 inches (33 to 80 mm.) 
long, and the latter from 0.6 to 1 inch (16 to 25 mm.) long. The 
S. filaria is thread-like and the S. refuscens hair-like in appear- 
ance. For this reason they are termed thread and hair lung- 
worms. The thread-worm is found in the trachea and the larger 



ANIMAL PARASITES 263 

bronchial tubes, and the hair-worm in the most minute as well as 
the larger bronchioli. 

This disease is most common in wet seasons. Undrained 
pastures and ponds are said to favor the spread of the disease. 
Permanent pastures favor the reinfection of the flock from 
year to year. The eggs and embryos are expelled in coughing, 
and live for a time in the pastures, pens and houses. The sheep 
become infected through the dust, drinking water or feed. 

The symptoms of verminous hronchitis and pneumonia are 
quite characteristic. Lambs suffer most from these diseases. 
A number of animals in the flock are affected. Coughing, rapid 
and labored breathing, loss of appetite, emaciation and weak- 
ness are the usual symptoms noticed. When a paroxysm of 
coughing occurs, considerable mucus is expelled. An examina- 
tion of the expectorations may result in finding a few lung 
worms. In poorly-cared-for flocks, and when complicated by 
stomach and intestinal worms, the death rate is usually heavy. 

The treatment of lung-worm diseases in lambs and calves is 
largely preventive. We should use every possible precaution 
against introducing the infection into the herd or flock. It is 
not advisable to bring animals from an infected herd onto the 
premises, without subjecting them to a careful examination and 
a long quarantine before allowing them to stable or pasture with 
the other animals. Calves or lambs that show marked symptoms 
of disease should be given comfortable quarters, and special 
care and feeding. The entire herd or flock must be given the 
best care and ration possible. This is the only satisfactory 
method of treatment. Changing the pasture or lot frequently 
may help in ridding the premises of the infection. 

Verminous Bronchitis in Hogs. — The lung worm, Strongy- 
lus paradoxus, is a common parasite of young hogs. It is 
from 0.6 to 1.6 inches (16 to 40 mm.) long. When the infec- 
tion is light, the worms are found mostly in the bronchial tubes 
of the margin and apex of the lung. 



264 PARASITIC DISEASES 

Infection with this parasite does not depend on the humidity 
of the soil, or low, wet pastures containing ponds. Probably 
dusty quarters are responsible to a very large degree for this 
disease. 

The symptoms are most evident in pigs weighing from forty 
to eighty pounds. The first symptom is a cough, occurring on 
leaving the bed, after exercise and after eating. In badly in- 
fected cases the paroxysm of coughing is quite severe. The 
appetite usually remains good and the thriftiness of the pig is 
not seriously interfered with. The feeding of a suitable ration, 
and the good care that is usually given young hogs, are responsible 
for the mildness of the disease. 

The treatment that is of most importance is clean quarters, 
and the feeding of a ration that will keep the pig growing and 
healthy. The sleeping quarters should be kept free from dust. 
Disinfectants should be used freely about the quarters. 

The Kidney Worm of Hogs. — Sderostoma jnnguicola is the 
kidney worm of hogs. It is from 1 to 1.5 inches (25 to 27 mm.) 
long, and when seen against the kidney fat it appears dark or 
mottled. It is usually found in the fat in the region of the 
pelvis of the kidney. Although the kidney worm is capable of 
causing inflammatory changes in the tissues surrounding the 
kidney and the pelvis of this organ, the disease cannot be deter- 
mined by any noticeable symptom. Paralysis of the posterior 
portion of the body is attributed to the presence of kidney worms 
by stockmen. There are no data by which we may prove that 
the kidney worm is responsible for this disorder. 

The treatment is preventive. Clean feed, pens, watering 
troughs and feeding floors are the preventive measures indicated 
here. It is useless to attempt treatment with drugs, as the worms 
are out of reach of any drug that may be administered to the 
animals. 

Worms of the Digestive Tract of Poultry. — Poultry are 
often seriously infested with worms. A small number of the 
less injurious worms may not cause any appreciable symptoms 
of disease, but the fowl that harbors them is a source of infec- 



ANIMAL PARASITES 265 

tion to the other fowls. The infectious nature of parasitic 
disease caused by worms should be recognized more fully than at 
present by poultrymen. 

The different species of poultry are hosts for many different 
species of round-worms, thorn-headed worms and tapeworms. 
Dr. Kaupp states that Acaris infiexa or large round-worm, 
Heterakis ijipilosa or small round-worm, and the Spiroptera 
hamulosa or gizzard-worm are frequently found in fowls. The 
common round-worm may be found in the first portion of the 
intestine, and the small round-worm in the csecum. Neither 
of the species are dangerous unless present in large numbers. 
They may then obstruct the intestine, and irritate the intestinal 
mucous membrane. This may cause constipation, catarrhal 
inflammation of the intestine and diarrhoea. The gizzard-worm 
is the most dangerous of the parasites mentioned. The gizzard 
has an important digestive function to perform, and any condi- 
tion that may weaken its muscular walls may cause serious 
digestive disorders. This parasite may encyst in the wall of the 
gizzard. 

The treatment of intestinal worms in poultry is both pre- 
ventive and curative. The preventive measures consist in keep- 
ing the houses and runs clean. Air-slaked lime should be 
scattered over the runs every few weeks. The drinking places 
should be cleaned and disinfected daily. All possible precau- 
tions should be taken in order to prevent filth from getting into 
the drinking water. Epsom salts, powdered areca nut and 
santonin are the remedies commonly recommended for the treat- 
ment of intestinal worms. From twenty to forty grains of 
Epsom salts may be given. Powdered areca nut is recommended 
in from three to ten grain doses. Santonin may be given in 
from one to two grain doses. Both the areca nut and santonin 
may be given with the feed. 

The Gapes in Birds. — The gape-worm, Syngamus trachealis, 
is from 0.2 to 0.8 inch (5 to 20 mm.) long. The male and female 
are permanently united. The male is about one-third as long 



266 PARASITIC DISEASES 

as the female, and when attached to the anterior third of the 
female, gives the pair a forked appearance. 

Fowls become infested with the gape-worm by eating the 
adult parasite that has been expectorated, or an earth worm that 
is host for the immature parasite. The embryo gape-worm is 
freed in the intestine, and from here they are supposed to 
migrate into the abdominal air sacs and to the trachea and 
bronchi. 

The symptoms are most severe in very young fowls. The 
affected bird opens its mouth and aj^pears to gasp for breath, 
sneeze and attempt to swallow. In the severe cases the appetite 
is interfered with, mucus accumulates in the mouth and the 
bird is dull and listless. The death rate is quite high in young- 
chickens and turkeys. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. If the gape- 
worm is known to be present in the runs, the ground should be 
covered with lime, and the fowls moved to fresh runs if possi- 
ble. The young birds should not be exposed to tlie infection 
until they are well feathered out. Antiseptics may be given 
with the drinking water. Disinfectants should be used freely 
about the poultry houses, and the quarters kept clean. The 
worms may be snared by inserting a stiff' horse hair that has 
been twisted and forms a loop into the trachea. This may be 
dipped into camphorated oil or turpentine. This treatment 
should be repeated until the bird has been relieved. 

QUESTIOXS 

1. Namo the different groups q,f internal parasites; give examples of each. 

2. What conditions favor liver rot? Give the life history of the liver fluke. 

3. Name three common tapeworms; give the life history of the beef and 

pork tapeworms. 

4. Name the common intestinal worms of horses and give the treatment. 

5. Give the symptoms and treatment of stomach-worm disease of sheep. 

6. Name the common intestinal worms of hogs and give treatment. 

7. What species of domestic animals suffer most of verminous bronchitis? 

Give the treatment. 

8. Name the common internal parasites of poultry and give treatment. 



PART VI 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



CHAPTER XXVI 
HOG-CHOLERA 

Hog-cholera is a highly infectious disease of swine. It is 
characterized by an inflammation of the lymphatic glands, kid- 
neys, intestines, lungs and skin. The inflammation is hemor- 
rhagic in character, the inflamed organs usually showing deep 
red spots or blotches. 

Hog-cholera is especially prevalent in the corn-raising States 
which possess a denser hog population than any other section 
of the United States. In this country the loss from hog-cholera 
in 1913 amounted to more than $60,000,000, and it may be 
considered of greater economic importance than any of the other 
animal diseases. 

Specific Cause. — The specific cause of hog-cholera is an 
ultra-visible orgajiism that is present in the excretions, secretions 
and tissues of a cholera hog. De Schweinitz and Dorset in 1903 
produced typical hog-cholera by inoculating hogs with cholera- 
blood filtrates that were free from any organism that could be 
demonstrated by microscopical examination or any cultural 
method. The term ultra-visible virus is applied to the virus of 
hog-cholera. 

The ultra-visible vims is eliminated from the body of the 
cholera hog with the body secretions and excretions. Healthy 
hogs contract the disease by eating feed or drinking water that 
is infected with the virus. There are other methods of infec- 
tion, but field and experimental data show that hog-cholera is 
commonly produced by taking the germs into the body with food 
and drinking water. 

Accessory Causes. — The usual method of introducing hog- 
cholera into a neighborhood is through the importation of feed- 
ing or breeding hogs that were infected with the disease before 

269 



270 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



they were purchased, or became infected through exposure to the 
disease in the public stock-yards and stock-cars. The shipping 
of feeding hogs from one section of the country to another, and 
from public stock-yards, has always been productive of hog- 
cholera. Dr. Dorset states that more than fifty-seven per cent 
of the hog-cholera outbreaks are caused by visiting, exchanging 





Fig. 79. — A hog yard where the disease-producing germs may be carried over from year 

to year. 



work, exposure on adjoining farms and harboring the infection 
from year to year (Fig. Y9), and more than twenty-three per 
cent to purchasing hogs and shipping in infected cars, birds and 
contaminated streams. 

In neighborhoods where outbreaks of hog-cholera occur neces- 
sary precautions against the spread of the disease are not taken. 



HOG-CHOLERA 271 

The exchange of help at threshing and shredding time in neigh- 
borhoods where there is an ontbreak of hog-cholera is the most 
common method of spreading the disease. Visiting farms where 
hogs are dying of cholera ; walking or driving a team and wagon 
through the cholera-infected yards ; stock buyers, stock-food and 
cholera-remedy venders that visit the different farms in a neigh- 
borhood may distribute the hog-cholera virus through the infected 
filth that may adhere to the shoes, horses' feet and wagon wheels. 
Cholera hogs may carry the disease directly to a healthy herd 
when allowed to run at large. Streams that are polluted with the 
drainage from cholera-infected yards are common sources of 
disease. 

Pigeons, dogs, cows and buzzards that travel about the 
neighborhood and feed in hog yards and on the carcasses of 
cholera hogs may distribute the disease. Because of the active 
part that dogs, birds and surface drainage take in the distri- 
bution of hog-cholera, the practice of allowing the carcasses of 
dead hogs to lie on the ground and decompose is responsible for 
a large percentage of the hog-cholera outbreaks. 

Age is an important predisposing factor. Young hogs are 
most susceptible to cholera, and this susceptibility can be greatly 
increased by giving them crowded, filthy quarters. Infection 
with lice, lung and intestinal worms, the feeding of an improper 
ration and sudden changes in the ration lower the natural 
resistance of a hog against disease. Pampered hogs usually 
develop acute cholera when exposed to this disease. 

Hog-cholera is more virulent or acute during the summer and 
fall months than it is during the winter and spring months. 
After the disease sweeps over a section of country, it becomes 
less virulent and takes on a subacute or chronic form. Out- 
breaks of hog-cholera usually last two or three years in a neigh- 
borhood. This depends largely on the number of susceptible 
hogs that were not exposed to the infection the first season, and 
the preventive precautions observed by the owners. 



272 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Period of Incubation. — The length of time elapsing between 
the exposure of the hog to the cholera virus, and the development 
of noticeable symptoms of hog-cholera, varies from a few days 
to two or three weeks. The length of this incubation period 
depends on the susceptibility of the animal, the virulence of 
the virus and the method of exposure. An acute form of hog- 
cholera indicates a short period of incubation, and a chronic 
form, a long period. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of hog-cholera may differ widely 
in the different outbreaks of the disease. The symptoms may be 
classified under the following forms : Acute, subacute and chronic. 
The acute form of hog-cholera is the most common. The early 
symptoms are tremors, fever, depressed appearance, marked 
weakness, staggering gait, constipation and diarrhoea, labored 
breathing and convulsions. Death may occur within a few hours 
or a few days. Recovery seldom occurs. In the subacute form, 
the symptoms are mild and develop slowly. Recovery may take 
place within a few days, or after extending over a week or ten 
days it may assume the chronic form. Very often in outbreaks 
of subacute cholera a large majority of the herd does not show 
visible symptoms of the disease. In the chronic form, marked 
symptoms of pleuropneumonia and chronic inflammation of the 
intestine are common. Ulcers and sores form on the skin and 
the hair may come off. Large portions of the skin may become 
gangrenous and slough. Young hogs are usually stunted and 
emaciated. 

The first symptom of disease is an elevation of body tem- 
perature. 

At the beginning of any outbreak of hog-cholera the body 
temperatures of the apparently healthy animals may vary from 
105° to 108° F. After a few days, animals that are fatally 
sick or recovering from the disease may show normal or sub- 
normal body temperature. 

Loss of appetite is the first symptom of disease usually noted 



HOG-CHOLERA 273 

by the person in charge of the herd. The hog may show a dis- 
position to eat dirt. The sick hog is nsually found lying in its 
bed, or off by itself in a quiet place. It presents a rather charac- 
teristic appearance. The back is arched, the hind feet are held 
close together, or crossed, the abdomen is tucked up and the hog 
appears weak in its hind parts. Diarrhoea or constipation may 
be present. The color of the diarrhooal discharges varies accord- 
ing to the character of the feed, and it may be more or less tinged 
with blood and have a disagreeable odor. The urine is highly 
colored. 

The respirations and pulse heats are quickened and abnormal 
in character. Thumps sometimes occur. When the mucous 
membranes lining the throat and anterior air passages are thick- 
ened, the respirations are noisy and difficult. The animal may 
cough on getting up from its bed and moving about. There is at 
times a noticeable discharge from the nostrils. When the lungs 
are inflamed the respirations are quickened and labored. In 
case the pleural membrane is inflamed, the respiratory symptoms 
are more severe, .and the hog shows evidence of pain when the 
walls of the chest are pressed on. The pericardium, may be in- 
flamed. In such cases the hog staggers and falls when forced 
to walk. 

The central nervous system may be involved by the inflamma- 
tion. The usual symptoms occurring in inflammation of the 
brain and its coverings are then present. A sleepy, comatose 
condition may end in death, or the animal dies in a convulsion. 

The secretions of the shin and mucous membranes are 
abnormal. The skin in the regions of the ears, inside of the thighs 
and under surface of the body is moist, dirty or discolored red. 
Just before death the skin over the under surface of the body be- 
comes a purplish red. In the chronic form, a dirty, thickened, 
wrinkled skin is commonly observed. At first the secretion from 
the eyes is thin and watery, but it becomes thick, heavy and pus- 
like, causing the margins of the lids to adhere to each other. 
18 



274 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



The death rate in liog-cholera varies in the different forms 
of tlie disease. The average death rate is about fifty per cent. 

Differential Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of hog-cholera in the 
field must depend on the clinical symptoms, post-mortem lesions 

and history of tlie outbreak. 
The history should be that 
of a highly infectious disease. 
Abnormal body tempera- 
tures of a large percentage of 
the herd indicate the presence 
of an acute infectious disease. 
We should then destroy one 
of the sick hogs and make a 
careful post-mortem exami- 
nation (Fig. 80). An early 
diagnosis of the disease is 
necessary, as this enables us to 
use curative treatment when 
it will do some good, and take 
the necessary steps toward 
preventing the spread of the 
disease to neighboring herds. 
Intestinal and lung worms 
are common in young hogs. 
The presence of these worms 
does not always indicate that 
they are the cause of the sick- 
ness and death of the animal. Such parasites are injurious and 
may cause disease, but it is only in rare cases that they cause 
death. 

" Pig typhoid " is sometimes spoken of as a highly infectious 
disease involving the intestines. A disease of hogs that may be 
termed typhus-fever sometimes aifects a large number of the 
hogs in the herd. This disease occurs among hogs kept in small 




Fig. 80. — Carcass of a cholera hog showing 
(A) different groups of lymphatic glands; (B) 
kidneys; and (C) ulcer on ciECum. 



HOG-CHOLERA 



275 



yards and houses that are crowded, unsanitary and in continuous 
use, or when the hogs drink from wallows, ponds and creeks. 

The term swine-plague should not be used in speaking of 
outbreaks of hog-cholera, as it is now considered a form of hog- 
cholera involving especially the lungs. 

Lesions. — In acute hog-cholera the inflammation is hemor- 
rhagic in character. Small, red spots and blotches occur in 
different organs and tissues. In the chronic form of the disease 
ulceration of the intestinal and gastric mucous membrane, in- 





FiG. 81. — Kidneys from hog that died of acute 
hog-cholera. 



Fig. 82. 



-Lungs from hog that died of 
acute hog-cholera. 



flammation of the lungs and pleura and sloughing of the skin 
are common lesions. 

The skin over the under side of the neck, body and inside of 
the thighs may appear red or purplish-red in color. The different 
groups of lymphatic glands are enlarged and softened. They 
may vary in color from a grayish-red to a deep red, depending 
on the degree of engorgement with blood. The pleura and peri- 
cardium may show small red spots and blotches. The kidneys are 
usually lighter colored than normal, and marked with red spots 
and blotches (Fig. 81). The spleen may show no evidence of 
disease. It may be large and soft, or even smaller than normal. 
The liver may be enlarged and dark, or mottled and light colored. 



276 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



The stomach and intestines may show hemorrhagic spots and 
blotches. Sometimes the gastric and intestinal mucous mem- 
brane is a brick red. Ulceration of the mucous membrane is 
common (Fig. 83). 

Small, red spots may be present on the surface of the lungs 
(Fig. 82). Scattered lung lobules or a large portion of the 
lungs may be inflamed. In chronic hog-cholera, pleural exuda- 




FiG. S3. — A piece of intestine from a hog that died of chronic hog-cholera, showing appear- 
ance of intestinal ulcers. 

tion, adhesions and abscesses in the lung tissue may occur. In- 
flammations of the pericardium and heart muscle are less common 
lesions. 

Preventive Measures. — Hog-cholera is the most widespread 
infectious disease of hogs, and all possible precautions against its 
distribution to healthy herds should be practised. Hogs coming 
from other herds and stock shows should be excluded from the 



HOG-CHOLERA 277 

home herd until they are positivelj'^ shown to be free from dis- 
ease. They should be quarantined in yards set off for this pur- 
pose. The hogs should be cleaned by dipping or washing them 
with a disinfectant. The quarantine period should be longer 
than the average period of incubation. Three weeks is sufficient. 

The possible introduction of the disease into the pens by 
people, dogs, birds and other carriers of the disease should be 
guarded against, especially if cholera is present in the neighbor- 
hood. The exchange of help at threshing and shredding time 
with a neighbor who has hog-cholera on his farm is a common 
method of distributing the infection. It is not advisable to allow 
a stranger to enter your hog-houses and yards, unless his shoes 
are first disinfected. Whenever it is necessary for a person to 
enter yards where the disease is present, the shoes should be 
cleaned and disinfected on leaving. The wheels of wagons, and 
the feet of horses that are driven through cholera yards, should 
be washed with a disinfectant. The feet of feeding cattle that 
are shipped from stock-yards should be treated in the same man- 
ner. Persons taking care of cholera hogs should observe the 
necessary precautions against the distribution of the disease, and 
see that others practise like precautions. 

Hog-yards should be well drained and all wallow holes filled. 
Pens and pastures through which the drainage froiu the swine 
enclosures higher up flows should not be used for hogs. 

Care of a Diseased Herd. — When an outbreak of hog-cholera 
occurs on a farm the farm should be quarantined. The herd 
should be moved away from running streams, public roads and 
line fences, so that neighboring herds are not unnecessarily ex- 
posed to the disease. During the hot weather shade and an oppor- 
tunity to range over a grass lot or pasture are highly necessary. 
A recently mowed meadow, or a blue grass pasture and a low 
shed, open on all sides and amply large for the herd to lie under, 
give the animals clean range and comfortable, cool quarters. 
Roomy, dry, well-ventilated sleeping-quarters that are free from 



278 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



drafts and can be cleaned and disinfected are best when the 
weather is cold and wet. 

In the subacute, and in the early part of an acute outbreak 
of hog-cholera, it is advisable to separate the sick from the well 
hogs. The fatally sick animals should be destroyed. 

A very light ration should be fed and an intestinal antiseptic 
given with the feed. A thin slop of shorts is usually preferred. 
Four ounces of pulverized copper sulfate may be dissolved in one 
gallon of hot water, and one quart of this solution may be added 



«4t# • 




i'lo. b-i. — -Cleauing up a hog lot. 

to every ten gallons of drinking water and slop. Water and slop 
should not be left in the troughs for the hogs to wallow in. The 
troughs should be disinfected and turned bottom side up as 
soon as the hogs have finished feeding and drinking. Kitchen 
slop and sour milk should not be fed. The care and treat- 
ment of the herd require work and close attention on the part 
of the attendant. Indifferent, careless treatment is of no use 
in this disease. 

A disinfectant should be sprayed or sprinkled about the 
feed troughs, floors, pens and sleeping quarters daily. 



HOG-CHOLERA 279 

Disposing of Dead Hogs. — The carcasses of the dead hogs 
should be burned. Before placing the carcass on the fire, it 
should be cut open and several long incisions made through the 
skin. A crematory may be made by digging two cross trenches 
that are about one foot deep at the point where they cross, and 
shallow at the ends. Iron bars or pipe may be laid over the 
trenches where they cross for the carcass to rest upon, or woven 
wire fencing securely fastened with stakes may be used in the 
place of the iron bars. If the carcass is disposed of by burying, 
it should be buried at least four feet deep and covered with 
quicklime. 

Disinfecting the Yards and Houses. — If the sick hogs are 
moved to new quarters at the beginning of the outbreak, the hog 
houses and yards should be cleaned and disinfected (Fig. 84). 
The manure and all other litter should be hauled away to a field 
where there is no danger from this infectious material becoming 
scattered about the premises, leaving a centre of infection in the 
neighborhood and causing outbreaks of cholera among neighbor- 
ing herds. It may be advisable to burn the corn-cobs and other 
litter that have accumulated about the yards. Loose board floors 
should be torn up and the manure from beneath removed. 
Portable houses should be removed. The floors, walls of the 
house and fences should be first cleaned by scraping off the filth, 
and then sprayed with a three per cent water solution of a cresol 
or coal tar disinfectant to which sufficient lime has been added 
to make a thin whitewash. Three or four months of warm, sunny 
weather are sufficient to destroy the cholera infection in well- 
cleaned yards. 

Anti-hog-cholera Serum. — The credit of developing the flrst 
and at present the only reliable anti-hog-cholera serum and 
method of vaccination belongs to Drs. Dorset and JSTiles. Anti- 
hog-cholera serum came into general use in 1908, and all of the 
swine-producing States have established State laboratories for 
the production of this serum. 



280 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Anti-hog-cholera serum is produced bj injecting directly, or 
indirectly, into the blood-vessels of an immune hog a large quan- 
tity of cholera virus, secured by bleeding a hog that is fatally 
sick with acute cholera, and bleeding the injected animal after 
it has completely recovered from the injection. The injection 
of the cholera blood is for the purpose of stimulating the produc- 
tion of antibodies by the body tissues, and raising the protective 
properties of the immune hog's blood. An animal so treated is 
called a hyperimmune (Fig. 85). The blood from the hyper- 
immunes is defibrinated and a preservative added, and after it 




iiG. isO. — ll\puninmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum. 

has been tested for potency and freedom from contaminating 
organisms, it is ready for use. 

The Vaccination of Hogs with Anti-hog-cholera Serum. — 
The vaccination of a hog by the single 7nethod consists in inject- 
ing hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum. 
The immunity conferred may not last longer than three or four 
weeks. 

The vaccination of a hog by the douhle method consists in 
injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera 
serum and hog-cholera blood. 

The vaccination or treatment of a cholera hoff showina; notice- 



HOG-CHOLERA 



281 



able symptoms, or a higli body temperature, consists in injecting 
hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum (Fig. 
87). 

The region into which the serum and cholera blood may be 
injected are the inside of the thigh, within the arm, flank and 
side of the neck (Fig. 86). Two hypodermic syringes, holding 




Fig. 86. — Preparing the hog for vaccination 
by washing the part where the serum is in- 
jected with a disinfectant. 



Fig. 87. — Vaccinating a hog. 



about twenty cubic centimetres and six cubic centimetres, and 
having short, heavy, seventeen or eighteen-gauge slip-on needles, 
should be used. The small syringe is used for injecting the viru- 
lent or cholera blood which is injected into a different part than 
the serum. The quantity of serum and virus injected varies 
with the size and condition of the animal. Young hogs should 



282 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

receive one-half cubic centimetre of sernni for each pound of 
body weight, and cholera hogs should be given from one-half to 
twice the dose that is recommended for healthy animals. The 
dose of virus recommended varies from one-half to two cubic 
centimetres for each hog. 

In vaccinating small pigs not more than five, and in large 
hogs not more than twenty, cubic centimetres should be injected 
at any one point. The hody temperature of each animal should 
be taken. A body temperature of 103.5° F. in a mature hog 
and a body temperature of 104° F. in a young hog may indicate 
hog-cholera. Exercise, feeding and close confinement in a warm 
place may raise the body temperature above the normal. 

Hogs that are to be vaccinated or treated should not be given 
feed for at least twelve hours before handling them. If possible 
they should be confined in a roomy, clean, well-bedded pen. If 
this is practised, they are cleaner and easier to handle and their 
body temperatures are less apt to vary. After the treatment or 
vaccination the hogs should be fed a light diet for a period of at 
least ten days, and the ration increased gradually in order to 
avoid causing acute indigestion. This is necessary because of 
the elevation in body temperature resulting from the inability 
of the animal to digest heavy feeds, kitchen slops and sour milk. 
If poor judgment is used in caring for the vaccinated hogs, and 
the person who vaccinates them uses careless methods, heavy 
losses from acute indigestion, blood poisoning, or hog-cholera 
may occur. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat is the specific cause of hog-cholera? Give and describe tlie different 

methods of spreading the disease. 

2. What are the symptoms of hog-cholera? 

3. Give the preventive and curative treatment of hog-cholera. 

4. What is anti-hog-cholera serum? Give the different methods of vaccina- 

tion and treatment. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculosis is a contagious and infections disease of man 
and domestic animals, that may affect any of the body tissues, 
but especially the lymphatic glands and the lungs. The charac- 
teristic diseased change that takes place in the tissues is the 
formation of the tubercle or nodule. 

History. — Tuberculosis is one of the oldest of the known 
diseases of domestic animals and man. The contagious and infec- 
tious character of this disease was proven by Villemin in 1865, 
who by means of experimental in- 
fection transmitted tuberculosis from 
man to animals and from animal to 
animal. It was not until 1882 that 
Dr. Robert Koch discovered and 
proved by inoculation experiments'' 
that the disease was caused by a specific 
germ (Fig. 88). ' Prior to the experi- 
ments by VillemiTi and Koch, the 
common belief was that tuberculosis Fjq. ss.— Koch's BacUius tuber- 

T ■•. . culosis, greatly enlarged. 

was due to heredity, unsanitary con- 
ditions and inbreeding. Following the discovery of the spe- 
cific germ and the conditions that favored its development 
and spread, numerous scientifically conducted experiments were 
made. These experiments have finally resulted in practical 
methods of control and the elimination of tuberculosis from 
herds having this disease. By carefully conducted experi- 
ments and other forms of educational work the infectious charac- 
ter of tuberculosis and the economic importance of preventive 
measures have been demonstrated. Although the average stock- 
man is well informed regarding the character and economic 
importance of this disease, there is no general application of this 
knowledge, and tuberculosis is increasing in dairy and breeding 
herds. The slow development of tuberculosis, and the absence of 

283 




284 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

visible symptoms during the early stage of the disease, are 
responsible for this condition and the extensive infection of dairy 
and breeding herds. 

Prevalence of the Disease. — Tuberculosis is very prevalent 
among cattle and swine in all countries where intensive agricul- 
ture is practised. It is a rare disease among cattle of the steppes 
of eastern Europe and the cattle ranges of the western portion 
of the United States. In countries where dairying is an im- 
portant industry, tuberculosis is a common disease of cattle and 
hogs. The abattoir reports of Europe and the United States 
show that tuberculosis is on the increase among domestic animals. 
The Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture reports that out of 400,008 cattle tested with 
tuberculin 9.25 per cent reacted. Melvin states that the annual 
loss from tuberculosis in the United States is about $23,000,000. 
In dairy herds in which the disease has existed for several years, 
it is not uncommon to find from twenty-five to seventy-five per 
cent of the cows tubercular. 

The Direct Cause. — The direct cause of tuberculosis is 
Koch's Bacillus luherculosis. This is a slender, rod-shaped 
microorganism (Fig. 88) and it occurs in the diseased tissues, 
fa'ces and milk of a tubercular animal. It belongs to that small 
group of bacteria known as acid-fast bacteria. The tubercle 
bacillus is not really destroyed by external influences, and it 
may retain its virulence for several months in dried sputum 
if protected from the light. Its vitality enables it to resist high 
temperatures, changes in temperatui-e, drying and putrefaction 
to a greater degree than most non-spore-producing germs. Direct 
sunlight destroys the germ within a few hours, but it may live 
in poorly lighted, filthy stables for months. A temperature of 
65° C. destroys it in a few minutes. 

Animals that have advanced or open tuberculosis may dis- 
seminate the germ of the disease in the discharge from the 
mouth, nostrils, genital organs, in the intestinal excreta and milk. 
The germs discharged from the mouth and nostrils are coughed 
up from the lungs and may infect the feed. Milk is a common 



TUBERCULOSIS 285 

source of infection for calves and hogs. The practice of allowing 
hogs to run after cattle is sure to result in the infection of a 
large percentage of them with tuberculosis, if there are any open 
cases of tuberculosis in the herd. 

Predisposing Causes. — Any condition that may lessen the 
resistance of the body or enable the tubercle bacillus to survive 
the exposure outside the body favors the development of the 
disease and the infection of the healthy animals. Crowded, 
poorly ventilated, filthy stables lower the disease-resisting power 
of the animal, and favor the entrance of the germs into the body. 
Under such unsanitary conditions, tuberculosis spreads quickly 
among dairy cattle, and a large percentage of the animals de- 
velop the generalized form of the disease. Sanitary stables and 
yards do not prevent the spread of the disease among animals 
that live in close contact with one another. Fresh air and sani- 
tary surroundings only check the spread and retard its progress. 

Introduction of Tuberculosis into the Herd. — The common 
method of introducijig tuberculosis into the herd is through the 
purchase of animals having the disease. Such animals may be 
in apparent good health at the time of purchase, and be affected 
with generalized or open tuberculosis. 

A source of infection is by unknowingly buying cows that 
have reacted to the tuberculin test. The indiscriminate use and 
sale of tuberculin are lai-gely responsible for the large number 
of reacting animals that have been placed on the open market. 
This dishonest practice has resulted in the rapid spread of the 
disease in certain localities. For years a large percentage of 
the breeding herds have been infected with this disease, and the 
writer has met with several herds of dairy and beef cattle that 
became tubercular through the purchase of tubercular breeding 
animals. 

Symptoms. — There is no one symptom by which we may 
recognize tuberculosis in cattle and hogs. Xone of the symptoms 
shown by a tubercular animal are characteristic, unless it is in 
the late stage of the disease. In a well-cared for animal, the 
lymphatic glands in the different regions of the body, the lungs, 



286 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



liver and other organs, maj be full of tubercles without causing 
noticeable symptoms of disease (Fig, 89). 

Tuberculosis may attack any organ of the body, and in the 
different cases of the disease the symptoms may vary. Enlarge- 
ment of the glands in the region of the throat, and noisy, difficult 
breathing are sometimes present. The udder frequently shows 
hard lumps scattered through the gland. Bloating may occur 
if a diseased gland in the chest cavity presses on the oesophagus 




Fig. 89.— a tubercular 



ill 



lealth, but showed 



generalized tuberculosis on post-mortem examination. 

and prevents the usual passage of gas from the paunch. Chronic 
diarrhoea may occur. If the disease involves the digestive tract, 
the animal is unthrifty and loses flesh rapidly. Coughing is not 
a characteristic syiuptom, and we should not place too much 
emphasis on it. If the lungs become tubercular the animal 
usually has a slight, harsh cough. The cough is first noticed when 
the cattle get up after lying down, when the stable is first 
opened in the morning and when the animals are driven. If 
the chest walls are thin, soreness from pressure on the ribs may 



TUBERCULOSIS 



287 



be noted. By applying the ear to the chest wall and listening 
to the king sounds, absence of respiratory mnrniurs and abnor- 
mal sounds may be distinguished, due to consolidation of the 
lung tissue, abscess cavities and pleural adhesions. In a well- 
advanced case the hair is rough, the skin becomes tight and the 
neck thin and lean. The animal may breathe through the mouth 
when it is exercised. Weakness may be a prominent symptom. 

Breeding animals that are well fed and cared for may live 
for several years before showing noticeable symptoms of tuber- 




FiG. 90. — Tubercular spleens. 

culosis. The disease progresses more rapidly in milch cows, espe- 
cially if given poor care. Calves that are allowed to nurse a 
tubercular mother that is giving off tubercle bacilli frequently 
develop enlarged throat glands and the intestinal form of the 
disease. 

Hogs develop a generalized form of tuberculosis more quickly 
than cattle, but an unthrifty, emaciated condition is seldom 
noted in hogs under ten months old. 

Post-mortem Lesions, — The effect of the tubercle bacillus 
on the body is to irritate and destroy the tissues. Lumps or 
tubercles form in the lymphatic glands, liver, lungs, spleen (Fig. 



288 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



90), serous membranes, kidneys and other body organs (Figs. 
91 and 92). The tubercles may be very small at first, but as 




Fig. 91. — The carcass of a tubercular cow. Note the condition of the carcass, and the 
tubercular nodules on the chest wall, showing that the disease was well advanced. 

the disease progresses they continue to enlarge until finally a 
tubercular mass the size of a base-ball, or larger, is formed 
(Figs. 93, 94, 95 and 96). Lymphatic glands may become 



TUBERCULOSIS 



289 



several times larger than normal and the liver and lungs greatly 
enlarged. The pleura and peritoneum maj be thickened and 
covered with tubercles about the size of a millet seed, or larger. 
Pleural and peritoneal adhesions to the organs within the body 
cavities are common. 

The tubercle usually undergoes a cheesy degeneration. Old 
tubercles may become hard and calcareous. Sometimes the cap- 
sule of the tubercle is filled with pus. A yellowish, cheesy 






'■^^^m^^ 



Fig. 92. — A section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow showing a better view of the 

diseased tissue. 



material within the capsule of the tubercular nodule or mass is 
typical of the disease. 

The Tuberculin Test. — The only certain method of recog- 
nizing tuberculosis is by means of the tuberculin test. There is 
no other method of recognizing this, or any other disease, that 
is more accurate than the above test. 

The substance used in testing animals for tuberculosis is a 
laboratory product. It is a germ-free fluid prepared by growing 
the tubercle bacillus in culture medium (bouillon) until charged 
19 



290 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



with the toxic products of tlieir growth. The culture medium is 
then heated to a boiling temperature in order to destroy the 
germs. It is then passed through a porcelain filter that removes 
the dead germs. The remaining fluid is tuberculin. 

There are tivo methods of applying the tuberculin test. The 



"*F^ 




^»/ 





Fig. 93. — A very large tubercular gland that had broken down in the central portion. 

subcutaneous test consists in injecting a certain quantity of tuber- 
culin beneath the skin, and keeping a record of the body tem- 
perature of the animal between the eighth and eighteenth hours 
following the injection. Tubercular animals show an elevation 
in temperature that comes on about the eighth or twelfth hour of 
the test. In the intradermal test, a small quantity of a special 
tuberculin is injected into the deeper layer of the skin. The seat 
of the injection in cattle is a fold of the skin on the under side 



TUBERCULOSIS 



291 



Fia. 94. 




FiQ. 95. 




Fig. 96. 




Fig. 94.— a tubercular gland that is split open. 

Fig. 95. — Caul showing tuberculosis. 

Fig. 96. — Foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint. 

of the base of the tail. In tubercular animals the injection is 
followed by a characteristic local swelling. 



292 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The Control of Tuberculosis. — The control of tuberculosis is 
largely in the hands of the breeder and dairyman. This is a 
disease that requires the cooperation of stockmen and sanitary 
officers in the application of control measures. If there are 
several open cases of tuberculosis in a herd of cattle, the appli- 
cation of the tuberculin test, the removal of the reacting animals 
and the disinfection of the premises are not sufficient to eradicate 
the disease. It is necessary to repeat the tuberculin test within 
six months, and later at twelve-months intervals, until none of 
the animals that remain in the herd react. 

The most practical method of disposing of dairy cows that 
react to the tuberculin test is to slaughter them. Unless a large 
percentage of the herd is tubercular, it is not advisable to practise 
segregation and quarantine. Segregation and quarantine may 
be advisable if the reactor is a valuable breeding animal, unless 
visible s^anptoms are shown. The milk from reacting cows may 
be used if it is boiled or sterilized. Whenever a calf is bom of 
a reactor, it should be separated from the mother and fed milk 
from a healthy cow. 

The separation of the tubercular from the healthy cows 
must be complete. Separate buildings, yards and pastures that 
do not join the quarters where the healthy animals are kept 
should be provided. The person attending the reactors should 
not attend the healthy animals, and separate forks, shovels, 
pails and other utensils should be provided for the two herds. 

The most practical method of controlling tuberculosis in 
hogs is to slaughter all of the reactors, disinfect the yards and 
houses and move the herd to new quarters. If the old quarters 
are free from filth and carefully disinfected, the hogs may be 
returned without danger of infection after a period of six 
months. A retest of the herd should be made before returning 
them to the permanent quarters and the reactors slaughtered. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the history of the early experimental work in tuherculosis: give the 

common methods of spreading the disease. 

2. What are the symptoms and post-mortem lesions in tuberculosis? 

3. Give the method of controlling tuberculosis. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES COMMON TO THE DIFFERENT 
SPECIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

Septicasmia and Pyaemia. — The term commonly used in 
speaking of simple septicaemia and pyaemia is blood poisoning. 

These infectious diseases are caused by several different 
species of bacteria that gain entrance to the tissues by way of 
wounds. The bacteria that cause py?cmia are transferred by the 
blood stream to different organs and produce multiple abscesses. 
In septicaemia, the bacteria may occur in immense numbers in 



Fig. 97. — Staphylococcus pyogenes. Fig. 9S. — Streptococcus pyogenes. 

the blood and produce a general infection of the tissues, causing 
a parboiled appearance of the liver, heart, voluntary muscles and 
kidneys, and enlargement of the sj)leen. The two forms of infec- 
tion are often present at the same time. 

The forms of bacteria that may cause blood poisoning are 
the Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and alhus (Fig. 97), Strep- 
tococcus pyogenes (Fig. 98), Bacillus pyocyaneus. Bacillus coli 
communis, and the bacillus of malignant oedema (Figs. 99 and 
100) . The latter is included with the bacteria that produce blood 
poisoning because it is a frequent cause of wound septicaemia. 
Subcutaneous, punctured, lacerated, contused and deep wounds 
without suitable drainage are the most suitable for the develop- 

293 



294 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

ment of and infection of the tissues with the above germs. 
Wound infection is most common during hot weather. 

The symptoms are both general and local. The tissues in 
the region of the wound become swollen and painful. In malig- 
nant a^dema the swelling pits on pressure, and if the wound is 
open, the surface becomes soft and may slough. The body 
temperature may be several degrees above the normal, the appe- 
tite is impaired or the animal stops eating and acts sleepy. A 
small amount of highly-colored urine may be passed. Kervous 
symptoms, such as muscular twitching, excited condition, de- 
lirium and paralysis, may be noted. 




Fig. 99. — Bacillus of malignant Fig. 100. — Bacillus of malignant 
oedema, showing spores. oedema. 

The prognosis is unfavorahle. In pya-mia the animal may 
live from a few days to several months. Septicemia usually 
terminates fatally in from two to ten days. 

TJie treatment is largely preventive. Wounds should be 
given prompt attention. They should be freed from all foreigTi 
substances and w^ashed with a disinfecting solution. A contused- 
lacerated wound should not be sutured if this interferes with the 
cleansing of it, and the escape of the wound secretions. All 
punctured wounds should be enlarged so as to permit of treat- 
ment and drainage. 

Hemorrhagic Septicaemia. — An acute infectious disease of 
ruminants and swine, characterized by hemorrhages in the dif- 
ferent body tissues that appear as small red spots or blotches. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 295 

The specific cause of this disease is the Bacillus hovisepticus 
(Fig. 101). This bacilhis probably enters the body tissues by 
way of the lining membrane of the intestinal and respiratory 
tracts. In the northern States, cattle pasturing on marsh lands 
and swampy pastures are more often affected with the disease 
in the late summer and fall than at other seasons of the year. 

The drinking of contaminated surface water that collects 
in muddy pools and ponds may cause the disease. Cattle pas- 
turing in stalk fields sometimes become 
infected in this way. Dusty sleeping 
quarters and small, crowded, muddy 
yards seem to favor the development 
of the disease in hogs. Exposure, 
insufficient exercise and careless feed- 
ing are the predisposing factors. 

The symptoms vary according to 
the animal and organ, or organs of 
the body affected and the violence of ri°- ioi.-Ba"7z«s hovisevticus. 
the attack. The disease may be acute or subacute. The brain 
and its membranes, lungs and air-passages and intestines may 
become affected. The symptoms may be classed under the head 
of nervous, respiratory and intestinal (Fig. 102), and they may 
be very unsatisfactory from the standpoint of diagnosis. The 
history and post-mortem lesions are of most value in the recog- 
nition of this disease. The local conditions, the loss of several 
animals in the herd and the finding of hemorrhagic lesions in the 
different body tissues may enable the examiner to correctly diag- 
nose the disease. It is very advisable in order to confirm the 
diagnosis to make a bacteriological examination of the tissues. 

The acute form of the disease is very fatal. Animals that 
have the subacute form usually recover. The death-rate is be- 
tween five and fifteen per cent of the herd. The mortality is 
heavier than this unless prompt preventive measures are taken. 

Preventive treatment is of the greatest importance. Cattle 
that become affected when running on pasture should be moved, 




296 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

or in case a part of the pasture is swampy, we may prevent 
further loss by fencing off this portion. Drinking places that are 
convenient and free from filth should be provided. Watering 
troughs and drinking fountains should be cleaned and disin- 
fected every few weeks. For this purpose, use a three per cent 
water solution of a cresol disinfectant, or a ten per cent water 
solution of sulfate of iron. Dusty quarters should be cleaned and 
disinfected. Dirt floors may be sprinkled with crude oil. 

When an outbreak of septicii'mia hsemorrhagica occurs in a 



■^4 •'•':'■ 





Fia. 102. — A yearling steer affected with septicaemia hsemorrhagica, intestinal form. 

herd, both the well and sick animals should be given a physic. 
Cattle may be given one-lialf pound of Epsom salts, repeated in 
three or four days ; sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of raw 
linseed oil. Animals that have the subacute form of the disease 
may be given stimulants, and iron and bitter tonics. 

Anthrax, Charbon. — This is an acute infectious disease af- 
fecting many different species of animals. Anthrax is one of 
the oldest animal diseases, and early in the history of the race 
it existed as a plague in Egypt. It most commonly affects cattle, 
sheep and horses. Man contracts the disease by handling wool 
and hides from animals that have died of anthrax, and by acci- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 297 

dental inoculation in examining the carcass of animals that 
have died of the disease. 

Cause. — Anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped, spore-producing 
microorganism, Bacillus anthracis (Fig. lOo). It gains 
entrance to the body by way of the intestinal tract, lungs 
and air-passages and the skin. The bites of insects play an 
important part iai the distribution of the disease in some lo- 
calities, but the most common method of infection is by 
way of the digestive tract, through eating and drinking food 
and water contaminated with the anthrax germs. The spores 
of the B. anthracis are very resistant to changes in temperature 
and drying. They may live for years in rich, moist inundated 
soils. Iviver-bottom and swampy lands that have become in- 
fected with discharges from the bodies of animals sick with 
anthrax, and by burying the carcasses 
of animals that have died of this 
disease, retain the infection for many 
years. Anthrax is very widely dis- 
tributed. It is most prevalent in the 
southern portion of the United States, 
especially the lower portion of the 
Mississippi Valley. 

27^6 syniptotns vary in the different 
cases^ depending on the organ or organs ^^°- ^os.—Baciiius anthracis 
affected, and the virulence and amount of virus introduced. The 
apoplectic form is very acute. The disease sets in suddenly ; the 
animal trembles, staggers, falls and dies in a convulsion. Blood 
may be discharged from the nose and with the urine and faeces. 

In the abdominal form, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, prolapse 
of the rectum, bloating and doughy swellings in the region of 
the abdomen occur. 

In the thoracic form, the symptoms are bloody discharge from 
the nostrils, salivation, rapid, difficult breathing and swelling in 
the region of the throat. Local or skin lesions may occur in con- 
junction with, or independent of, the above forms of disease. 




298 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

These are carbuncles one or two inches in diameter that are hot 
and tender at first, but later become gangrenous, diffused swellings. 

On post-mortem examination the blood is found tarry and 
dark, and bloody exudates may be found in the abdominal and 
thoracic cavities. The spleen is soft and two or three times 
larger than normal. The diagnosis should be confirmed by 
finding the B. antliracis in the blood and tissues. The death-rate 
is very high, usually about seventy-five per cent. 

The treatment is preventive. Animals should be kept away 
from lots and pastures where deaths from anthrax have been 
known to occur, unless immunized against the disease. Marshy, 
swampy land that is infected with the germs of anthrax should 
be drained and cultivated. 

When an outbreak of the disease occurs, all of the animals 
should be vaccinated. The carcasses of the animals that die 
should be cremated at or near the place where they die. If 
hauled or dragged, the necessary precautions should be taken 
against scattering the infectious material from the carcass, and 
plenty of disinfectants used. Persons attending the animals 
should be warned against opening or handling the carcass without 
protecting the hands with rubber gloves. 

Anthrax vaccine should not be used by incompetent persons. 

Ulcerative Stomatitis. (Ulcerative Sore Mouth.) — This is 
an infectious disease of young animals. Pigs from a few days 
to a few weeks of age are the most commonly affected. 

The specific cause of ulcerative sore mouths is the Bacillus 
7iecro'phorus (Fig. 104). The infectious agent is distributed by 
the udder of the mother becoming soiled with filth from the 
stable floor and yards, and by affected pigs nursing mothers of 
healthy litters. Filth, sharp teeth and irritation to the gums from 
the eruption of the teeth are important predisposing factors. 

The symptoms are, at first, an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane lining the lips and cheeks and covering the gums. 
The inflamed parts are first swollen and a deep red color; 
later, white patches form and the part sloughs, leaving a deep 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



299 



ulcer. As ulceration progresses, difficulty in nursing increases 
until finally the young animal is unable to suckle. If ulceration 
of the mouth is extensive, the animal may be feverish, dull and 
lose flesh rapidly. Portions of the lips, gums and snout may 
slough off. The death-rate in pigs is very high. 

The preventive treatment consists in keeping the quarters 
and yards in a sanitary condition, and using all possible precau- 
tions against the introduction of the disease into the herd. The 
diseased young and mother should be separated from the herd 
and the quarters disinfected daily. The 
mouths of all the young should be ex- 
amined daily and the diseased animals 
treated. The ulcers should be scraped 
or curetted and cauterized with lunar 
caustic, and the mouth washed daily 
with a two per cent water solution of 
a cresol disinfectant. Dipping pigs 
headforemost into a water solution 
of permanganate of potassium (one- 
half teaspoonful dissolved in a gallon of water), twice daily, 
may be practised if the herd is large. 

It is usually most economical to kill the badly diseased 
animals, as they usually die or become badly stunted. 

Rabies, Hydrophobia. — Eabies is an infectious disease af- 
fecting the nervous system, that is transmitted by the bite of a 
rabid animal and the inoculation of the wound with the virus 
present in the saliva. It is commonly considered a disease of 
dogs, but because of the disposition of rabid dogs to bite other 
animals, rabies is common in domestic animals and man. 

Rabies is widely distributed, being most prevalent in the 
temperate zone, and where the population is most dense. It 
has been excluded from Australia, Tasmania and E'ew Zealand 
by a rigid inspection and quarantine of all imported dogs. 

The specific cause of rabies is probably a protozoan para- 
site (the ISTegri bodies present in nerve-cells, Fig. 105). The 




Fig. 104. — Bacillus necrophorus. 



300 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

germ spreads from the wounds through the nerves and cen- 
tral nervous system. The disease-producing organisms are 
present in great numbers in the nei^ve-tissue and saliva. 

The period of ijicuhation varies from a few days to several 
months. It is usually from ten to seventy days. 

The symptoms differ in the different species. There are two 
forms of the disease: the furious and 
S, .'/ "^r-,-, the dumb. The former is more common. 
V if ' ^ In the dog- the symptoms m,ay he 
C^ divided into three stages. The first, or 
ti^j"-^ melancholy stage, usually lasts from 
^ f^ twelve to forty-eight hours. The ani- 
mal's behavior is altered and it becomes 
jp- ^ sullen, irritable and nervous. Some- 
{^J times it is friendly and inclined to lick 

the hand of its master. An inclination 
y ^ to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects is 

-'^ > . ,^^ ^ • sometimes noted. Frequently a certain 
part of the skin is rubbed or licked. 
Fig. io5.-Negri bodies in nerve- The sccoud, Or furious stage, may last 
'^'■''''"'' several days. Violent nervous or rabid 

symptoms are manifested, and the dog may leave home and 
travel long distances. The animal usually shows a strong inclina- 
tion to bite. It may move about snapping at imaginary objects in 
its delirium, and may bite any person or animal with which it 
comes in contact. The bark is peculiar, the appetite is lost and 
the animal becomes weak and emaciated. 

In the third, or paralytic stage, the dog may present an emaci- 
ated, dirty, ragged appearance. The lower jaw may drop, the 
tongue hangs from the lips and the eyes appear sunken and 
glassy. Paralysis of the hind parts may be present. 

In the dumb form., the paralytic symptoms predominate and 
the disease pursues a short course. Eabies terminates in death 
in from four to ten days. 




INFECTIOUS DISEASES 301 

Furious rabies is more common in the horse. The animal 
is very nervous, restless and alert. It may attack other animals 
in a vicious manner, kicking and biting them. The animal 
does not seem to care to eat or drink, and usually shows violent 
nervous symptoms, such as biting the manger, rearing and kicking 
when confined in the stable. 

Cattle butt with the horns and show a tendency to lick 
other animals. They bellow more than common and the sexual 
desire is increased. Paral^^tic symptoms are manifested early 
in the disease, and the animal may fall when moving about. 
They soon present a gaunt, emaciated appearance. 

In dogs the diagnosis is confirmed by a microscopical exam- 
ination of the vagus ganglia and that portion of the brain known 
as Amnion's horn, and the finding of Negri bodies in the nerve- 
cells. In case a person is bitten by a dog, the animal should be 
confined until the disease is well advanced and killed or allowed 
to die. The head should then be removed and forwarded to 
the State laboratory, or wherever such examinations are made. 

The treatment is preventive. Wherever an outbreak of rabies 
occurs all dogs should be confined on the owner's premises or 
muzzled. All dogs running at large without muzzles should be 
promptly killed. A heavy tax on dogs, and the killing of all 
dogs not wearing a license tag, would prevent the heavy financial 
loss resulting from rabies, and the ravages of wandering dogs in 
the United States. In countries where the muzzling of dogs is 
enforced during the entire year, rabies is a rare disease. 

Foot-and-mouth Disease. — This is a highly contagious and 
infectious disease of cattle, sheep, goats and swine. It is charac- 
terized by the eruption of vesicles on the mucous membrane lining 
the mouth, the lips, between and above the claws and in the region 
of the udder and perineum. Man may contract the disease by 
caring for sick animals ; or by drinking raw milk from a sick 
cow. Babies are most susceptible to infection from milk. 

Footh-and-mouth disease was introduced into eastern Europe 
from the steppes of Prussia and Asia near the end of the eigh- 



302 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

teeiith century. It was introduced into England about 1839, and 
in 1870 into Canada through the importation of cattle from 
England. Erom Canada the disease spread to the United 
States. Very few animals were infected during the 1870 out- 
break, and the disease was quickly stamped out in both countries. 

Europe has been unable to eradicate foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease. The different outbreaks that occur from time to time cause 
enormous financial loss. In the United States outbreaks of the 
disease have occurred in the following years: 1870, 1884:, 1902- 
'03, 1908 and 1914-15. In the first two outbreaks very few 
cattle contracted the disease, and the infection was quickly 
stamped out. The third and fourth outbreaks were more exten- 
sive, and it was necessary to slaughter several thousand cattle 
and hogs in order to eradicate the disease. The first four out- 
breaks occurred in the eastern States, and the disease was pre- 
vented from spreading to the principal live-stock centers of the 
country, and the leading stock-raising States by slaughtering 
the diseased and exposed animals and by county and State 
quarantines. Early in the 1914-'15 outbreak, the disease spread 
to the Chicago Stock Yards, and from there, through shipments 
of cattle, to the principal live-stock sections of the country. The 
financial loss resulting from this outbreak has amounted to several 
million dollars. The Federal and State authorities have always 
been successful in stamping out the disease in the United States. 

The specific cause of foot-and-mouth disease is a filterable 
virus that is present in the serum from the vesicles, the saliva, 
milk, and various body secretions and excretions from the sick 
animal. In the early stage of the disease it is present in the 
blood. jSTono of the many investigators have been able to discover 
the microorganism that produces the disease. 

Two of the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in the United 
States originated from an infected vaccine used for the inocula- 
tion of vaccine heifers. The origin of the 19 14-' 15 outbreak has 
not been discovered. "When introduced into a country, the dis- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



303 



ease spreads rapidly, tliroiigh the movement of live-stock affected 
by the disease. Animals recently recovered may infect other 
animals. Dogs, birds, people, vehicles, milk, roughage, grains 
and other material from an infected farm may spread the disease. 

The period of incubation is short. Symptoms of disease may 
be manifested in from one to six days following exposure. 

The first symptoms are fever, dulness, trembling and loss of 
appetite. This is followed by vesicles or blisters forming on the 



"^mm. 




Fig. 106. — A cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease. Note the accumulation of saliva 
about the lips. (From report of the Bureau of Animal Industry.) 

mucous membrane of the mouth, lips, between and above the 
claws and the region of the udder. The inflammation of the 
mouth and feet may be very painful. Long strings of saliva 
may dribble from the mouth and collect about the lips (Fig. 106), 
A smacking or " clucking " sound is produced when the animal 
moves its jaws and lips. The severe pain resulting from the 
inflammation of the mouth and feet, and the difficulty in moving 
about and eating and drinking, cause the animal to lose flesh and 
become emaciated. Milk cows may go dry. 

The death-rate is not heavy. Some writers place it as low 



304 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



as two or three per cent. Because of the erosions and sloughing 
of the tissues of the mouth, feet and udder it becomes necessary 
to kill many of the animals. Young animals frequently die of 
inflammation of the digestive tract. The immunity conferred 
by an attack of the disease is not permanent. 

The most economical measures of prevention and control 
are to buy and slaughter all diseased and exposed animals, bury 
the carcasses in quicklime, disinfect the premises (Tigs. 107, 108 




Fig. 107. — Slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease. (Photo- 
graphed by S. J. Craig, County Agricultural Agent, Crown Point, Indiana.) 

and 109) and enforce a district, county and State quarantine, 
until after the infection has died out. This statement may not 
hold true of methods of control in countries where foot-and-mouth 
disease is widely distributed. 

Tetanus. Lockjaw. — This is an acute infectious disease 
that is characterized by spasmodic contractions of voluntary 
muscles. The specific germ remains at the point of infection, and 
produces toxins that cause tetanic contractions of the muscles. It 
commonly affects horses, mules, cattle, sheep and swine. The 
disease is more connnon in warm than it is in cold climates. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



305 



f- 




FiG. lOS. — Disinfecting boots and contd beiure luuviug n farm where cattle have been in- 
spected for foot-and-mouth disease. (Photographed by S. J. Craig, County Agricultural Agent, 
Crown Point, Indiana.) 




Fig. 109. — Cleaning up and disinfecting premises where an outbreak of foot-and-mouth 
disease has occurred. 

20 



306 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

The specific cause is a pin-shaped germ, the Bacillus tetani 
(Fig. 110), that is present in the soil, especially those that are 
rich and well manured. The germ enters the body by way of 
a wound, especially punctured wounds. Infection may take 
place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the 
mouth, or other parts of the digestive tract. Infection may 
follow a surgical operation, such as castration. In any case, 
the germ requires an absence of air (oxygen) for its development. 
The period of incuhation varies from one to two weeks, the 
length of time depending on the nearness of the wound to a large 
nerve trunk or brain. 

The iirst symptom observed is a stiffness of the muscles, 
especially those nearest the point of in- 
oculation or wound. The muscles of 
the head, neck, back and loins are often 
affected first, and when pressed upon 
with the fingers feel hard and rigid. 
The disease rapidly extends, producing 
spasms of other muscles of the body. 
In breathing, the ribs show less move- 
ment than normal, the head is held in 
Fig. 110— Bacillus tetani. qj^^ positiou and higher than usual, 
the ears are stiff or pricked, the nostrils dilated, the lips rigid or 
drawn back and the eyes retracted, causing the " third eyelid " 
to protrude over a portion of the eye (Fig. 111). In most cases 
the muscles of mastication and swallowing are affected. The 
animal may be unable to open its mouth and swallows with 
difficulty. Wlien standing, the limbs are spread out so as to 
increase the base of support, and in acute cases about to ter- 
minate fatally, the pulse is quick and small and the respiration 
shallow, rapid and labored. The animal sweats profusely, falls 
down and struggles violently, but remains conscious to the end. 

In the subacute form (Fig. 112) the symptoms are mild, 
and the animal may be able to move about, eat and drink without 
very great effort. 




INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



307 



Treatment is largely preventive. All wounds should be care- 
fully disinfected. This is especially advisable in punctured 
wounds of the foot. In communities, or on premises where teta- 
nus is a common disease, animals that have punctured or open 
wounds should be given a protective dose of tetanus antitoxin. 









Fig. Ill . — Head of horse affected with.tetanus, showing ' ' third eyelid ' ' protruding over the eye. 

The curative treatment is largely good care. If a wound is 
present, it should be thoroughly disinfected. The animal may 
be supported by placing it in a sling. A comfortable box-stall, 
where the animal is not annoyed by noises or worried by other 
animals, is to be preferred. A fresh pail of water should be 
given the animal several times daily. 

The course of the disease varies. Death may occur within 



308 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



a few days, or the disease may last two or three weeks. Animals 
that recover from tetanus may show symptoms of the disease 
for several weeks. The death-rate is highest in hot climates and 
during the summer months. 

If the animal can eat, it is not advisable to feed a heavy 




Fig. 112. — A subacute case of tetanus. 

ration of roughage or grain. A very light diet of soft food, such 
as chops and hran-mash, prevents constipation and encourages 
recovery. Drugs that have a relaxing effect on the muscles may 
be given. Tetanus antitoxin may be given in large doses. 

QUESTIONS 
L What is septicaemia and pytpmia? 

2. What is hnemorrhagic septicemia? Give methods of spreading and con- 

trolling this disease. 

3. Give the cause of antlirax and symptoms. 

4. What control measures are recommended in anthrax? 

5. What is ulcerative sore mouth? Give the treatment. 

6. Describe the symptoms occurring in rabies, and state the control measures 

recommended. 

7. Name the species of animals affected by foot-and-mouth disease, and the 

countries where the disease is prevalent. 

8. Give the methods of distribution and ccmtrol of foot-and-mouth disease. 

9. What is the specific cause and method of infection in tetanus? Give the 

treatment. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE 

Strangles. Distemper. — This is an acute infectious disease 
associated with a catarrhal condition of the air-passages and 
suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the throat. 
Colts are the most susceptible to the disease. One attack renders 
the animal immune against a second attack of the disease, but the 
immunity is not always permanent. 

The specific cause. Streptococcus equi (Fig. 113), was dis- 
covered by Schutz in 1888. Strangles is commonly spread by 
exposing susceptible animals to dis- 
eased animals, either by direct contact, 
or by exposing them to the infection in 
the stable and allowing them to drink 
or eat food from watering and feeding 
troughs on premises where the disease 
exists. The predisposing causes are 
cold and sudden changes in the weather. 
For this reason the disease is most 
prevalent during the late winter and fiq. 113.— streptococcus of stran- 

1 • gles in pus. 

early spring. 

The period of incubation varies, usually from four to eight 
days. 

The symptoms at the beginning of the attack are a feverish 
condition and partial loss of appetite. The visible mucous 
membranes are red and dry. This is followed by watery nasal 
secretions that become heavy and purulent within a few days. 
The inflammation may extend to the larynx and pharynx. 

The glands in the region of the jaw become hot, swollen and 
painful, and the animal may be unable to eat or drink. The 
swelling and inflammation of the throat, and the heavy, pus-like 

309 




310 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

secretions that accumulate in the nasal cavities, cause difficult 
respirations. After a few days the abscesses usually break, and 
the symptoms are less severe. If the abscesses break on the 
inside of the throat, the discharge from the nostrils is increased. 

The disease may be accompanied by an eruption of nodules, 
or vesicles on the skin, or nasal mucous membrane. 

In severe and chronic cases multiple abscesses may form. 
This complication is indicated by emaciation and weakness. 
Such cases usually terminate in death. Severe inflammation 
and swelling in the region of the throat may terminate in strangu- 
lation and death. The death-rate is from one to three per cent. 

The preve7itive treatment consists in using all possible pre- 
cautions to prevent the exposure of susceptible animals and prac- 
tising the immunization of exposed animals. The curative treat- 
ment is principally careful nursing. Eest, a comfortable stall, 
nourishing feed and good care constitute the necessary treatment 
for the average case of distemper. When the abscesses become 
mature, they should be opened and washed with a disinfectant. 
Steaming the animal several times daily relieves difficult breath- 
ing and the irritated condition of the mucous membranes. In 
case the abscesses do not form promptly and the throat is badly 
swollen, a blistering ointment or liniment may be applied. Bit- 
ter and saline tonics, the same as recommended in the treatment 
of indigestion, may be given with the feed. 

Influenza (Catarrhal or Shipping Fever). — This is a well- 
known acute infectious disease of solipeds. It is characterized 
by depression, high body temperature and catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the respiratory and other mucous membranes. 

Several epidemics of influenza have occurred in the United 
States. The most serious epidemic occurred in the latter part 
of the '70's, and the last one in 1900-'01. Influenza is present 
in the principal horse centers in a somewhat attenuated form. 

The specific cause of the disease has never been determined. 
The virus is present in the expired air, nasal secretions and 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE 311 

excreta. Close proximity to a diseased animal is not necessary) 
in order to contract the disease. Stables may harbor the infec^ 
tion, and it may be distributed by such disease carriers as 
blankets, harness, clothing of the attendant and dust. 

The predisposing causes are cold, exposure and changes in 
climate. When the disease appears in a country, it is first present 
in the large cities, and from there it is scattered to the outlying 
districts. The period of incubation is usually from four to 
seven days. 

The early symptoms of the disease are a high fever, marked 
depression and partial or entire loss of appetite. The horse 
usually stands in the stall with the head down and appears 
sleepy. The visible and respiratory mucous membranes are in- 
flamed, the respirations are quickened and the animal may 
cough. The eyes are frequently affected, the lids and cornea 
showing more or less inflammation. The digestive tract may be 
affected. At the beginning, colicky pains may be present and 
later constipation and diarrhoea. Symptoms of a serious nervous 
disturbance are sometimes manifested. 

The limbs usually become swollen or filled. This disap- 
pears as the animal begins to improve. Pregnant mares may 
abort. The death-rate is low. 

The treatment required for the sick animals is largely rest, 
a light diet and a comfortable, clean, well-ventilated stall, free 
from draughts. Windows in the stall should be darkened. If 
the stable is cold, the body of the animal should be covered with 
a blanket and the limbs bandaged. Two ounces of alcohol and 
one drachm of quinine may be given three or four times daily. 
Small doses of raw linseed oil may be given if necessary. 

Horses that are exposed to cold, wet weather or worked after 
becoming sick, frequently suffer from pneumonia, pericarditis, 
gastro-enteritis and other diseases. Such complications should 
be given prompt treatment. 

It is very advisable to give a protective serum to horses that 



312 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

are shipped or transported long distances, and exposed to the 
disease in sale or transfer stables. 

Glanders, Farcy. — This is a contagions and infections dis- 
ease of solipeds that is characterized by the formation of nodules 
and ulcers on the skin, nasal mucous membrane and lungs. 

Although glanders is one of the oldest of animal diseases, 
it was not until 1868 that its contagious character was demon- 
strated. The disease is widely distributed. It became more 
prevalent in the United States after the Civil War. The vigor- 
ous control measures practised by the State and Federal health 
officers have greatly decreased the percentage of animals affected 

witli glanders. At the present time 
the disease is more often met with in 
the large cities than in the agricul- 
tural sections of the country. 

The specific cause of glanders is 

^ /\ w i I the Bacillus ^nallei (Fig. 114). This 

microorganism was discovered in 1882. 

It is present in the discharges from 

^^^ the nasal mucous membrane and the 

Fig. n^.~BaciUus mallei. "L^^^^i'^; Tlicse discharges may become 
deposited upon the feed troughs, 
mangers, stalls, harness, buckets, watering troughs, drinking 
fountains and attendants' hands and clothing. Healthy horses 
living in the same stable with the glandered animals may 
escape infection for months. It is usually the diseased animal's 
mate, or the one standing in an adjoining stall, that is first 
affected. Catarrhal diseases predispose animals to glanders, 
as the normal resistance of the mucous membranes is thereby 
reduced. The most common routes by which the germ enters the 
body are by way of the digestive and respiratory tracts. It 
may enter the body through the uninjured mucous membranes of 
the respiratory tract and genital organs, or through wounds of 
the skin. 




INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE 313 

The period of incubation may be from a few to many days. 

The sympto7ns may be acute or clironic in natnre. The acute 
form pursues a rapid course. It is frequently seen in mules 
and asses, and it may develop from the subacute or chronic form 
in horses. When the disease is acute, the animal has a fever, is 
stupid, does not eat, and may have a diarrhoea. In this form the 
l^auphatic glands suppurate, the animal loses flesh rapidly 
and dies in from one to two weeks. 

The chronic form is the most common. It develops slowly 
and lasts for years. The early symptoms of the disease (chilling 
and fever) usually escape notice. The first visible symptom is a 





Fig. 115. — Nasal septum showing nodules and ulcers. 

nasal discharge of a dirty white color from one or both nostrils. 
This is usually scanty at first, and intermittent, but later be- 
comes quite abundant. The discharge is very sticky, and adheres 
to the hair and skin. The most frequent seat of the disease is 
in the respiratory organs, lymph glands and skin. I^odules 
and ulcers appear on the nasal mucous membrane (Fig. 115), 
but they may be so high up as to escape notice. The ulcers are 
very characteristic of the disease. They are angry looking, with 
ragged, raised margins, and when they heal leave a puckered 
scar. The submaxillary glands may be enlarged, and at first 
more or less hard and painful, but later they become nodular and 
adhere to the jaw or skin. ISTodules and ulcers may form on the 
skin over the inferior wall of the abdomen and the inside of the 



314 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

hind limbs and are known as " farcy buds." Lymphatic vessels 
near these buds become swollen and hard. The animal loses 
flesh rapidly, does not withstand hard work, and the limbs 
usually swell. 

It is sometimes difficult to diagnose the disease. The ulcers 
on the nasal mucous membranes and elsewhere are very charac- 
teristic, and when present enable the examiner to form a diag- 
nosis. In cases of doubt, a bacteriological examination of the 
nasal discharge may be made, or we may resort to one or several 
of the various diagnostic tests. The Mallein test is quite 
commonly used. The sterilized products of a culture of the 

B. mallei are injected beneath the skin 
of the suspected animal. This causes 
a rise in body temperature and a hot, 
characteristic swelling at the point of 
injection in glandered animals. 

Treatment is not recommended at 
the present time. ISTearly all of the 
States have laws which aim to stamp 
out the disease wherever found by 
Fia. 116.— streptococcus pyoycnes killing all affcctcd auimals, and thor- 

equi. 

oughly disinfecting the stables, har- 
ness and everything which has been near the animal. Dis- 
eased animals should be carefully isolated until slaughtered, 
and all animals exposed to them should be subsequently tested 
for glanders. 

Contagious Pleuropneumonia (Stable Pneumonia). — This 
is an infectious disease of solipeds that usually results in a fatal 
inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane. 

Many writers have described this disease as associated with 
influenza, but it is frequently seen as a separate disease, usually 
involving only the lungs and pleurae. It is prevalent in several 
parts of the United States, more particularly the horse centers 
or large markets, where it appears in the form of epidemics. 




INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE 315 

In several of these localities it is known as western or stable 
fever. 

The specific cause is not definitely known. The Strepto- 
coccus pyogenes equi (Fig. 116) is very commonly present. This 
germ grows in the diseased tissues. The disease is spread by 
direct or indirect contact, as when well or susceptible animals 
are placed in the same stable with an animal affected with the 
disease, or in stalls which have recently held diseased animals. 

The period of iyicubation is from, four to ten days following 
exposure. 

The symptoms are those commonly seen at the beginning 
of an attack of simple pneumonia and pleurisy. They consist 
of chills, high fever, cough, depression, difficult and labored 
breathing and loss of appetite. The disease usually runs a 
course of from one to three weeks. The death-rate is thirty per 
cent or more. 

The treatment is mainly preventive. Stables where horses 
having pleuropneumonia have been kept should be cleaned and 
disinfected by spraying the floors, stalls and walls with a four 
per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant. It is advisable 
to subject all newly-purchased animals to a short quarantine 
period before allowing them to mix with the other animals in the 
stable. Exposed animals may be given a protective serum. 

The curative treatment is the same as recommended for the 
treatment of simple pneumonia and pleurisy. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the specific cause of distemper? Give the symptoms and treat- 

ment. 

2. ^Vhat are the different methods of spreading influenza? Give the 

symptoms and treatment. 

3. Give the cause and methods of controlling glanders. 

4. Give the cause and treatment of contagious pleuropneumonia. 



CHAPTER XXX 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE 

Actinomycosis, " Lumpy Jaw." — This is an infectious dis- 
ease that is characterized by the formation of tumors and ab- 
scesses (Fig. 117), and the destruction of the infected tissues. 
The disease is common in cattle and usually affects the bones 
and soft parts of the head. In the United States, where the 




// 



*'"' '■ 




..• '%t^. 



Fig. 117. — A case of "lumpy jaw." 



disease is known as '' lumpy jaw," the jawbone is commonly 
affected. In European countries the disease frequently involves 
the tongue, and the term " wooden tongue " is applied to it. 
The disease may affect regions of the body other than the head. 
Actinomycosis of the lungs sometimes occurs. Swine and horses 
may be affected by this disease. 
316 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE 



317 



The specific cause of actinomycosis is commonly known as 
the ray fungus ( Fig. 118). This fungus grows on certain plants, 
and the animal usually contracts the disease by eating plants 
or roughage that have the fungus on them. Grasses having 
awns that are capable of wounding the mucous membrane of 
the mouth and penetrating the gums are most apt to produce 
the disease. Young cattle that are replacing and erupting their 
teeth are most prone to " lumpy jaw." Conditions that favor 
bruising of the jaw and external wounds favor the development 
of actinomycosis. 

The fungus grows in the tissues, causing an inflammatory 
reaction and destruction of 
the tissue. The ray fungTis 
can, be seen in the diseased 
tissue or the pus as yellow- 
ish, spherical bodies about the 




Fig. 118. — The ray fungus. 



size of a grain of sand. Each 
of these bodies is formed by 
a large number of club-like 
bodies arranged about a cen- 
tral mass of filaments. 

The local symptoms are 
characteristic (Fig. 117). 
The tumor may involve the soft tissues of the head. If the jaw- 
bone is affected the tumor feels hard and cannot be moved about. 
Sometimes it is soft and filled with pus. Tumors of long stand- 
ing may possess uneven, nodular surfaces and fistulous openings. 
When the tongue is affected, it is swollen and painful, and 
prehension and mastication of the food may be impossible. 
When the pharynx is the seat of disease, breathing and swallow- 
ing are difficult and painful. Actinomycosis of the lungs may 
present the appearance of a chronic pulmonary affection. If the 
disease involves the head and lungs, the animal may become 
unthrifty and emaciated. In doubtful cases a microscopic ex- 



318 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

amination of a piece of the tumor, or some of the pus, may be 
necessary. 

The treatment is surgical and medicinal. Small, external 
tumors may be removed by an operation. Sometimes an incision 
is made into the diseased tissue and a caustic preparation intro- 
duced. 

The most desirable method of treatment is the administration 
of large doses of iodide of potassium in a drench, or in the 
drinking water. The dose is from one to three drachms daily 
for a period of seven to fourteen days. The size of the dose 
depends on the size of the animal and its susceptibility to iodism. 
An animal weighing 1000 pounds may be given two drachms. 
The treatment is kept up until the symptoms of iodism develop. 
The condition is indicated by a loss of appetite and a catarrhal 
discharge from the eyes and nostrils. When this occurs, the 
treatment should be stopped, and the animal drenched with one- 
half pound of Epsom salts, and the dose repeated after three 
or four days. After an inteiwal of two weeks, the iodide of 
potassium treatment should be repeated if the growth of the 
tumor is not checked. 

Emphysematous Anthrax, " Black Leg." — " Black leg " 
is an acute infectious disease of cattle that is characterized by 
lameness and superficial swellings in the region of the shoulder, 
quarter or neck. The swellings are hot and painful and usually 
contain gas. 

The specific cause of '' black leg " is a rod-shaped, spore- 
producing germ, the bacillus of emphysematous anthrax (Fig. 
119). This germ possesses great vitality, and may live indefi- 
nitely in the soil. It has been known to live for years in clay and 
undrained soils. Young animals that are in high condition are 
predisposed to the disease. 

The germ enters the body through abrasions in the skin and 
mucous membrane of the mouth and intestines. 

" Black leg " is a common disease of young cattle in all 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE 319 

sections of the country where cattle-raising is engaged in exten- 
sively. Outbreaks of the disease are most prevalent in the early 
spring after the snow has melted, and in the late summer in 
localities where cattle graze over the dried-up ponds and swampy 
places in the pasture. The germs of black leg may be carried 
from a farm where the disease is prevalent to non-infected prem- 
ises by surface water. The opening up of drainage ditches 
through stock-raising communities may be followed by out- 
breaks of the disease. 

The symptoms of black leg develop quickly and may terminate 
fatally in a few hours. There are gen- 
eral dulness, stiffness, prostration and 
loss of appetite. Lameness is a promi- 
nent symptom. The animal may show a 
swelling in the regions of the shoulder'] 
and hindquarters or on other parts of 
the body. The- swelling is very hot 
and painful at first, but if the animal 
lives for a time, it becomes less ten- 
der, crackles when pressed on and the fig. 119.— Baciuus of emphysema- 

,. c -i -I ^ 111 tous anthrax. 

skm may leel cold and leathery. 

Fever is a constant symptom. In the highly acute form of the 

disease nervous symptoms, such as convulsions and coma, occur. 

The tissue changes in the region of the swelling are charac- 
teristic. An incision into the swelling shows a bloody, dark 
exudate and the surface of the muscular tissue is dark. Frothy, 
bloody liquid escapes from the mouth, nose and anus. 

The preventive treatment consists in thoroughly draining 
pastures and yards where cattle run. This measure does not 
insure cattle against the disease. Cattle that die of " black leg " 
should be cremated. This should be done at the spot where the 
animal dies. If the carcass is moved or opened, the ground 
should be thoroughly wet with a four per cent water solution 
of a cresol disinfectant and covered with lime. 




320 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 



Vaccinatio7i of the exposed or susceptible animals should 
be practised. On farms where the disease exists it may be neces- 
sary to vaccinate the young animals (less than two years of age) 
once or twice every year in order to prevent the disease. Medic- 
inal treatment is unsatisfactory. 

Texas or Tick Fever. — Tick fever is an infectious disease 
of cattle. It is caused by an animal organism that is present in 
the blood, and is conveyed from the animal that is host for the 
tick fever parasite to the non-infected animal by a tick (Figs. 
120 and 121). 

Tick fever was introduced into the southern portion of the 




Fig. 120.— Cattle tick (male). Fia. 121.— Cattle tick (female). 

United States through importation of cattle by the Spaniards. 
Previous to the establishing of a definite quarantine line between 
the permanently infected and the non-infected sections, heavy 
losses among northern cattle resulted through driving and ship- 
ping southern cattle through the northern States. The specific 
cause and the part taken by the tick in its distribution were 
not discovered until 1889-'90. Smith recognized and discovered 
the specific cause of the disease, and Kilborn and Salmon proved 
by a series of experiments that the cattle tick was respon- 
sible for the transmission of the disease from animal to animal. 
TJie specific cause of tick fever is a protozoan parasite, Piro- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE 321 

plasma higeminum (Fig. 122). It is present in the blood of 
cattle that are affected with this disease. The natural method 
of entrance into the body is through the bite of the cattle tick. 
The disease may be transmitted by inoculating blood containing 
the parasite into a susceptible animal. 

There are two forms of the disease, the acute and chronic. 

The symptoms of the acute form of the disease are a high 
fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrha?a, dark or bloody 
urine, staggering gait and delirium. Death may occur within 
a few days from the time the first symptoms are manifested. 

The symptoms of the chronic form of the disease resemble 
the acute form, but are more mild. 
The animal is unthrifty and loses 
flesh rapidly. The bloodless condition 
of the body is manifested by the pale, 
visible mucous membrane. Death 
seldom occurs. 

The most characteristic diseased 
changes found on post-mortem exami- 
nation occur in the liver and spleen. 
The liver is enlarged, and a yellow- Fi«- 122.— Biood-ceiis with Piro- 

plasma higeminum in them. 

ish, mahogany-brown color. The gall- 
bladder is filled with a very thick bile. The spleen may be 
several times the normal size and dark colored. When it is cut 
into, the pulpy tissue may resemble thick, dark blood. The 
kidneys are pale and the bladder may contain dark or reddish- 
colored urine. 

In the northern States and outside of the quarantined area, 
the direct or indirect exposure of the affected cattle to southern 
cattle, and the presence of the cattle tick, Margarophus annu- 
latus, are sufiicient evidence to confirm the diagnosis of this 
disease. 

The prevention and control depend on destruction of the 
cattle tick. In the early history of the disease, shipping and 
21 




322 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

driving of southern cattle into and tlirongli the northern States 
caused outbreaks of tick fever and heavy losses among northern 
cattle. This finally resulted in the locating of the infected 
district, and the establishment of the Texas-fever quarantine 
line in 1891 by Dr. D. E. Salmon. 

Previous to this time Kilborne and Salmon proved that the 
cattle tick was essential to the spread and production of the 
disease. A further study of the life history of the tick resulted 
in the discovery that it could not mature unless it became a para- 
site of horses, mules, or cattle. This has led to the eradication of 
the tick in certain sections of the South, by not allowing cattle 
access to a pasture or lot for a certain period, and by freeing 
the animals from ticks by hand-picking, dipping and smearing. 

The immunization of cattle that are shipped into an infected 
district for breeding purposes is often practised. Immunity is 
obtained by introducing the P. higeminum into the blood, either 
by placing a few virulent young ticks upon the animal, or by 
repeated inoculation with a very small quantity of virulent blood. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the cause and treatment of actinomycosis. 

2. Give the cause and treatment of empliysematous antlirax. 

3. Give tlie cause of tick fever; distribution of tlie disease and methods of 

control. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY 

Fowl Cholera. — This is a highly infectious disease of all 
species of poultry, that is characterized by weakness, depression 
and yellowish colored excrement. 

The specific cause of fowl cholera is the Bacillus avisepticus 
(Fig. 123). This microorganism is transmitted to the healthy 
birds by the feed, or water becoming contaminated with the dis- 
charges from the diseased birds. According to Salmon, the 
period of incubating varies from four to twenty days. 

The early symptoms are a falling off in appetite, high fever, 
dulness, diarrhcea and weakness. The 
affected bird becomes drowsy, the head 
is drawn toward the body, and it may 
remain asleep for long periods at a 
time. Salmon states that the general 
outline of the sick bird becomes spheri- 
cal or ball-shaped. 

The disease is usually highly fatal. 
In the acute form the larger portion 
of the flock may die off within a week. 

Fig. 123. — Bacillus avisepticus. 

In the subacute and chronic forms, the 

birds become greatly emaciated, and a few die off weekly through 

a period of a month or longer. 

The tissue changes occurring in the disease are inflammation 
of all or a few of the internal organs. Ward states that the most 
characteristic lesion of fowl cholera is the severe inflammation of 
that portion of the small intestine nearest to the gizzard. Small 
hemorrhagic spots may be found on the heart and other organs. 

The treatment is both preventive and curative. The pre- 
ventive treatment consists in quarantining newly purchased 

323 




324 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

birds until we are satisfied tliat they are free from disease. 
The occasional disinfection of the poultry houses and runs is 
highly important. Cleaning the poultry house by removing the 
floor, roosts, or any part of the house for the purpose of removing 
all filth, and spraying the interior with a three per cent water 
solution of a cresol disinfectant, should be practised. Lime 
should be scattered over the runs, or the yards immediately about 
the house. The above preventive measures form an important 
part of the care and management of the flock. The carcasses of 
the dead birds should be burned. It is advisable to kill all birds 
that are fatally sick. 

All of the flock should be given antiseptics with the feed and 
water. Four ounces of a water solution of copper sulfate, made 
by dissolving one-quarter pound of this drug in one gallon of 
hot water, may be added to each gallon of drinking water. Fre- 
quent disinfection of the drinking fountains, feeding places and 
houses should be practised. 

Diseases Resembling Fowl Cholera. — There are a few dis- 
eases, such as septica-mia, limber neck and infectious enteritis, 
that are sometimes mistaken for fowl cholera. These diseases 
are caused by different microorganisms that may be found in the 
digestive tract and air-passages of healthy birds, insanitary 
conditions and decomposed feed, especially meat. It seems that 
under certain conditions, such as insanitary quarters and birds 
that are low in constitutional vigor and weakened from other 
causes, certain germs may become disease-producers. The 
death rate from mixed infections is very heavy in poultry. 

The symptoms vary in the different cases. The disease may 
be highly acute, as in limber neck, or chronic, extending over a 
period of a week or more. Diarrhoea is not a prominent symp- 
tom in the majority of cases. 

The post-mortem lesions vary from a hemorrhagic to a 
chronic inflammation of the different body organs and serous 
membranes. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY 325 

The treatment is preventive. A frequent cleaning and dis- 
infecting of the poultry house and surroundings, avoiding the 
feeding of spoiled feed, or allowing the drinking fountains and 
feeding places to become filthy, are effective preventive measures. 
Sick birds should be either isolated and quarantined, or de- 
stroyed. Antiseptics may be given with the feed and drinking 
water. 

Avian Diphtheria (Roup). — This infectious disease of 
poultry is especially common in chickens. It is characterized 
by a catarrhal and diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous 
membranes of the head. 

The specific cause of roup has not been determined. The 
disease-producing germs are present in the discharges from the 
nostrils, eyes and mouth, and the body excretions of sick birds. 
Birds having a mild form of roup, or that have recently re- 
covered from it, are common carriers of the disease. The dis- 
ease is usually introduced into the flock by allowing birds ex- 
posed at poultry shows, or recently purchased breeding stock 
from an infected flock, to mix with the healthy birds. 

The predisposing causes are very important factors in the 
development of roup. Cold, damp, draughty, poorly ventilated 
poultry houses cause the disease to spread rapidly and become 
highly acute. 

The symptoms differ in character in the different outbreaks 
of the disease. Usually the first symptoms noticed are sneez- 
ing, dulness, diminished appetite and a watery discharge from 
the nostrils and eyes. Later the eyelids may become swollen and 
the nostrils plugged by the discharge from the inflamed mem- 
branes. If the mouth is examined at this time, an accumulation 
of mucus and patches of diphtheritic or false membranes are 
found. In the acute form of roup the false membranes and 
yellowish, cheesy-like material accumulate on the different 
mucous membranes, and interfere with vision, breathing and 



326 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

digestion. The affected bird becomes thin and weak. The 
death rate is very high in this form of the disease. 

The preventive treatment consists in quarantining birds 
that have been purchased from other flocks, and that have been 
exhibited, for a period of three weeks. A careful examination 
of the mouth should be made. If a catarrhal discharge from 
the nostrils and false membranes is present, prompt treatment 
should be used. A sick bird should be held in quarantine for 
several weeks after it has recovered, and receive a thorough 
washing in a two per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant 
before allowing it to mix with the healthy birds. 

The medicinat treatment consists in removing the discharges 
from the nostrils and eyes with pledgets of absorbent cotton 
that are soaked with a four per cent water solution of boric 
acid. Among the common treatments mentioned are boric acid 
and calomel, equal parts by weight, blown into the nostrils and 
eyes with a powder blower. Water solutions of boric acid, 
potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide are recom- 
mended. Liquid preparations are applied with pledgets of 
cotton, oil cans, or atomizers. 

Many recoveries can be obtained with careful treatment. It 
is usually most economical to kill the severely affected birds. 
Many poultrymen dispose of the entire flock as soon as the dis- 
ease makes its appearance, and clean and disinfect the premises 
before restocking, 

Chickenpox. — In some sections the disease appears in an- 
other form, known as cJiickenpox (contagious epithelioma), in 
which nodules form on the skin along the base of the comb and 
other parts of the head, or both forms may be met with in the 
same flock. The nodules should be treated with vaseline, or 
glycerine ointments containing two per cent of any of the 
common antiseptics or disinfectants. 

Entero-hepatitis. " Blackhead."— This is a very fatal dis- 
ease of young turkeys. Grown turkeys and other fowls are not so 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY 327 

susceptible to the disease. It is characterized by an inflamma- 
tion of the liver and intestines, especially the ctuca. 

The specific cause is a protozoan microorganism, Amceba 
meleagridis. Adult fowls and turkeys may act as carriers of the 
germ, and the young turkeys become infected at an early period. 

The symptoms are diminished or lost appetite, dulness, 
drooped wings, diarrhoea, weakness and death. When the dis- 
ease becomes well advanced, the head and comb become dark. 

The course of the disease is from a few weeks to three 
months. Very few of the young turkeys survive. 

The treatment is almost entirely preventive. The same pre- 
cautionary measures for the prevention of the introduction of 
disease into the flock, recommended in other infectious diseases, 
should be practised. Turkeys that survive should be disposed 
of. As chickens may harbor the disease-producing germs, we 
should not attempt to raise turkeys in the same quarters with 
them. Eggs should be obtained from disease-free flocks. Wip- 
ing the eggs with a cloth wet with fifty per cent alcohol may be 
practised. The same recommendations regarding the cleaning 
and disinfecting of the quarters described in the treatment of 
fowl cholera should be practised. 

If an outbreak of the disease occurs in the flock all of the 
sick birds should be killed, and their carcasses cremated. Mov- 
ing the flock to fresh runs and the administration of intestinal 
antiseptics are the only effective lines of treatment. 

Avian Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis of poultry is a serious 
disease in some countries. Poultry usually contract tuberculosis 
by contact with a tubercular bird, and not from other domestic 
animals and man. 

The symptoms are of a general character, such as emaciation, 
weakness, wasting of muscles and lameness. Tubercular 
growths may appear on the surface of the body. 

If we suspect the presence of the disease, it is advisable to 
kill one of the sick birds and make a careful post-mortem 



328 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

examination. The finding of yellowish, white, cheesy nodules 
or masses in the liver, spleen, intestines and mesenteries is 
strong evidence of tuberculosis. A bacteriological examination 
of the tissues may be necessary in order to confirm the diagnosis. 
The same methods of treatment as recommended in tubercu- 
losis of other domestic animals may be used in eliminating the 
disease from the premises and flock. This consists in killing 
and cremating all birds showing visible symptoms, moving the 
apparently healthy portion of the flock to new quarters and 
wiping the eggs with alcohol. The old quarters should be 
cleaned, disinfected, and then allowed to stand empty for several 
months, when we should again spray with a disinfectant, and 
scatter lime over the runs. If the cleaning and disinfecting have 
been thorough, we may safely turn young or healthy birds into 
the old quarters. All possible precautions against carrying the 
infection to the healthy flock must be observed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the cause and treatment for fowl cholera. 

2. What diseases resemble fowl cholera? Give the treatment. 

3. Give the symptoms and treatment for roup. 

4. Give the treatment for " blackhead." 

5. Give the treatment for Avian tuberculosis. 

REFERENCE BOOKS 

Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, Vol. 

1-11, Hutyra and Marek. 
Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 1-V, Law. 
General Therapeutics for Veterinarians, Frohner. 

Prevention and Treatment of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, Winslow. 
Age of the Domestic Animals, Hundekoper. 
Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Winslow. 
Veterinary Anatomy, Sisson. 

Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy of Domestic Animals. 
Manual of Veterinary Physiology, Smitli. 
Annual Reports of Bureau of Animal Industry, from 1902 to 1911. 



INDEX 



Abortion, 73, 78 

accidental, 73, 78 

infectious, 73, 78 
Abscesses, 211, 212 
Acne, 121 

Actinomycoses, 316, 318 
Administration of drugs, 17, 21 
Age of domestic animals, determin- 
ing the, 187, 195 
Anaemia of the brain, 112, 114 
Animal parasites, 248, 206 
Anthrax, 296, 298 

emphysematous, 318, 320 
Azoturia, 135, 137 

Blackhead, 326, 327 
"Black leg," 318, 320 
" Bloating," 33, 35 
Bog spavin, 181, 182 
Bot-fly of cattle, 234, 235 
treatment of, 236 

of horse, 233, 234 

of sheep, 235 

diseases, symptoms of, 235, 236 
Broken-knee, 150, 151 
Broken-wind, 102, 103 
Bronchitis, 96, 97 
Buck-knees, 151, 152 

Calculi, 63 

Caponizing, 226, 228 
Capped elbow, 148, 150 

hock, 182, 183 
Care of the mother and young, 80, 

82 
Castration, 222, 224 
Catarrh, 94, 95 
Catarrhal fever, 310, 312 



Causes of disease, 4, 7 
exciting, 5 
predisposing, 5 
Charbon, 296, 298 
Chickenpox, 326 
Choking, 220, 222 
Cholera, fowl, 323, 325 

hog, 269, 282 
Classification of disease, 3, 4 
Cold in the head, 94, 96 
Colic, 40, 45 
Complications following castration, 

224, 226 
Congestion of the brain, 112, 114 

of the lungs, 97, 98 
Conjunctivitis, 127, 128 
Contagious pleuropneumonia, 314, 

315 
Contracted quarters, 165, 167 

tendons, 155, 156 
Corns, 169, 170 
Crop, distention of the, 51 
Curb, 183, 184 
Cystitis, 62, 63 

Dehorning cattle, 219, 220 
Dental diseases, 199, 200 
Depraved appetite, 27, 28 
Determining the age of animals, 187 
189, 195, 196 
general discussion, 187, 
188 
Diarrhoea, 47 

in young animals, 47, 50 
in young chickens, 52, 53 
Disease, general discussion of, 3, 4 
Diseases of the circulatory organs, 
104, 108 

329 



330 



INDEX 



Diseases of the circulatory organs, 
acute lymphangitis, 
107, 108 
general discussion, 104, 

105 
palpitation, 105, 106 
pericarditis, 106, 107 
of the digestive system, 25, 54 
of the intestines, 39, 54 
of the mouth, 25, 27 
of the stomacli, 28, 38 
of the digestive tract of poultry, 
50, 54 
acute and chronic 
indigestion, 51, 
52 
of the crop, 51 
general discussion, 

50, 51 
white diarrhoea of 
young chickens, 
52, 53 
of the eye, 125, 130 

conjunctivitis, 127, 128 
examination of the eye, 120, 

127 
general discussion, 125, 126 
infectious ophthalmia of 

ruminants, 129, 130 
periodic ophthalmia, 
"moonblindness," 128,129 
of the foot, 160, 173 

contracted quarters, 165, 

167 
corns, 169, 170 
general discussion, 160, 162 
laminitis, " founder," 170, 

173 
navicular disease, 163, 165 
sand-crack, 167, 169 
side-bones, 162, 163 
of the fore-limb, 147, 159 

capped elbow, " shoe-boil," 
148. 150 



Diseases of the fore-limb, contracted 
tendons, "knuckling 
over," 155, 156 
distended synovial sacks, 
joint sheaths and bursse, 
151 
inflammation of flexor ten- 
dons, 153, 155 
of sesamoid bones, 155 
injuries caused by interfer- 
ing, 156, 158 
injuries to the knee, 
" broken knee," 150, 151 
ring-bone, 158, 159 
splints, 152, 153 
sprains and injuries of the 
. shoulder, 147, 148 
sprung knees, " buck knees," 
151, 152 
of the generative organs, 65, 90 
abortion, 73, 78 
care of the mother and 

young, 80, 82 
general discussion, 65 
genital organs of fe- 
male, 65, 67 
organs of male, 67, 
68 
hygiene of pregnant 

animals, 71, 73 
leucorrhoea, 85, 86 
mammitis, 86, 87 
" milk-fever " or post- 
partum paralysis, 88, 
90 
pliysiology of parturi- 
tion, 78, 80 
retention of the fetal 

membranes, 82, 85 
signs of pregnancy, 70, 

71 
sore and warty teats, 87 
sterility, impotency, 68, 
70 



INDEX 



331 



Diseases of the hind limb, 174, 184 
bog spavin, 181, 182 
capped hock, 182, 183 
curb, 183, 184 
fractures of the ileum, 

"hipped," 174, 175 
luxation of the patella, 

" stifle out," 175, 176 
spavin, 177, 181 
string-halt, 176, 177 
of the liver, 55, 57 
of the locomotory apparatus, 
131, 137 
azoturia, hsemoglobinu- 

ria, 135, 137 
general discussion, 131, 

133 
rheumatism, 133, 135 
of the nervous system, 109, 118 
congestion and ansmia 

of brain, 112, 114 
general discussion, 109, 

112 
meningo-cerebritis, 1 14, 

116 
paralysis of posterior 
portion of body, 116, 
118 
of the respiratory organs, 91, 
103 
broken- wind, "heaves," 

102, 103 
bronchitis, 96, 97 
catarrh, 94, 96 
congestion of the lungs, 

97, 98 
general discussion, 91, 

93 
pleurisy, 100, 102 
pneumonia, 98, 100 
ventilation, 93, 94 
of the skin, 119, 124 

acne, " summer rash," 121 
common feed rash, 123, 124 



Diseases of the skin, eczema, 122, 123 
falling out of hair and 

feathers, 120 
general discussion, 119, 120 
herpes, 124 

urticaria," nettlerash," 
120, 121 
of the urinary organs, 58, 04 
cystitis, 62, 63 
excessive urination, 59, 

60 
general discussion, 58, 

59 
necessity of examining 

the urine, 59 
nephritis, 60, 62 
retention of tlie urine, 
63, 64 
Diphtheria, avian, 325, 326 
Distemper, 309, 310 
Dose, size of the, 21 
Drugs, administration of, 17, 21 

Eczema, 122, 123 
Emphysematous anthrax, 318, 320 
Enteritis, 45, 47 
Entero-hepatitis, 326, 327 
Eye, examination of, 126, 127 
inflammation of, 127, 128 

Ealling out of the hair and feathers, 

120 
Farcy, 312, 314 
Feed rash, 123, 124 
Fetal membranes, retention of, 82, 85 
Fistulous withers, 212, 213 
Flexor tendons, inflammation of, 153, 

155 
Foreign bodies in the stomach of 

ruminants, 37, 38 
"Founder," 170, 173 
Fowl cholera, 323, 324 

diseases resembling, 324, 
325 



332 



INDEX 



Fractures, 214, 216 

of the ileum, 174, 175 

Gapes in birds, 265, 266 
Genital organs of female, 65, 67 

of male, 67, 68 
Glanders, 312, 314 

Haemoglobinuria, 135, 137 

Harness injuries, 216, 218 

Heatstroke, 114 

Heaves, 102, 103 

Hemorrhagic septicaemia, 294, 296 

Hernia, inguinal, 225, 226 

Herpes, 124 

"Hipped," 174, 175 

Hog-cholera, 269, 282 

accessory causes, 269, 272 
anti-hog-cholera serum, 279, 282 
care of diseased herd, 277, 278 
differential diagnosis, 274, 275 
disinfection of yards, 279 
disposal of dead hogs, 279 
lesions, 275, 276 
period of incubation, 272 
preventive measures, 276, 277 
specific cause, 269 
symptoms, 272, 274 
vaccination of hogs, 280, 282 

Hydrophobia, 209, 301 

Hygiene of pregnant animals, 71, 73 

Impaction of the omasum, 36, 37 
Impotency, 68, 70 

Indigestion, acute intestinal, of soli- 
peds, 40, 45 
in poultry, 51, 52 
of the stomach of ruminants, 

acute, 33, 38 
of the stomach of solipcds, acute, 
30, 33 
Infectious ophthalmia of ruminants, 
129, 130 



Inflammation, 203, 205 

of the bladder, 62, 63 

of the brain and its coverings, 
114, 116 

of the bronchial tubes, 96, 97 

of the eye, 127, 128 

of the intestines, 45 47 

of the kidneys, 60, 62 

of the lungs, 98, 100 

of the pericardium, 106, 107 

of the pleura, 100, 102 

of the stomach of swine, 38 

of the udder, 86, 87 
Influenza, 310, 312 
Inguinal hernia, 225, 226 
Interfering, injuries caused by, 156, 

158 
Intestinal parasites of hogs, 259, 261 

worms of cattle, 256, 257 
of solipeds, 255, 256 
Irregularities of the teeth, 196, 200 

Kidney worm of hogs, the, 264 
Knee, injuries to the, 150, 151 
Knuckling over, 155, 156 

Laminitis, 170, 173 
Lantern-jaw, 196, 197 
Leucorrlia?a, 85, 86 
Lice, 236, 241 

symptoms of, 237, 239 
Liver, diseases of, 55, 57 
Liver fluke, 248, 251 
Lockjaw, 304, 308 
Lousiness, treatment of, 239, 241 
"Lumpy jaw," 316, 318 
Luxation of the patella, 175, 176 
Lymphangitis, acute, 107, 108 

Mammitis, 86, 87 
Mange in horses, 244 

treatment of, 244, 246 
Meningo-cerebritis, 114, 116 
Alilk-fever, 88, 90 



INDEX 



333 



Mites, diseases of poultry caused by, 
246, 247 
treatment of poultry diseases 
caused by, 247 
" Moonblindness," 128, 129 
Mouth, diseases of the, 25, 27 

Navicular disease, 163, 165 
Nephritis, 60, 62 
Nettlerash, 120, 121 

(Estridffi, 233, 237 
Omasum, impaction, 36, 37 
Ophthalmia, infectious, of rumi- 
nants, 129, 130 
periodic, 128, 129 
Ovariotomy, 228, 230 
Overloading of the rumen, 35, 36 

Palpitation, 105, 106 

Paralysis of the posterior portion of 
the body, 116, 118 

Parasitic insects and mites, 233, 247 

diseases of poultry 

caused by mites, 246, 

247 

lice, 236, 241 

the parasitic flies, 233, 

236 
scabies, 242, 246 
the sheep-tick, 241, 242 

Parrot-mouth, 196, 197 

Parturition, physiology of, 78, 80 

Pericarditis, 106, 107 

Periodic ophthalmia, 128, 129 

Pleurisy, 100, 102 

Pneumonia, 98, 100 

Poll evil, 212, 213 

Post-partum paralysis, 88, 90 

Pregnancy, signs of, 70, 71 

Pyemia, 293, 294 

Quarter-crack, 167, 169 



Rabies, 299, 301 

Retention of the fetal membranes, 82, 
85 
of the urine, 63, 64 
Rheumatism, 133, 135 
Ring-bone, 158, 159 
Round-worms, 253, 255 
Roup, 325, 326 

Rumen, overloading of, 35, 36 
"Rupture," inguinal, 225, 226 
Rupture of the stomach of solipeds, 
32 

Sand-crack, 167, 169 
Scab, 242, .246 

treatment of, 244, 246 
Scabies, 242, 246 
Schirrous cords, 226 
Scissor-mouth, 196, 197 
Scratches, 122 
Septicaemia 293, 294 

hemorrhagic, 294, 296 
Serum, anti-hog-cholera, 279, 280 
Sesamoid bones, inflammation of, 155 
Sharp teeth, 197 
Sheath, inflammation of the, 64 
Sheep tick, the, 241, 242 
Shipping fever, 310, 312 
Shoe-boil, 148, 150 
Shoulder sprains, 147, 148 
Side-bones, 162, 163 
Signs of pregnancy, 70, 71 
Size of the dose, 21 
Smooth-mouth, 198 
Sore mouth, ulcerative, 298, 299 
Sore and warty teats, 87 
Spavin, 177, 181 

bog, 181, 182 
Spaying, 228, 230 
Sprains and injuries to the region of 

the shoulder, 147, 148 
Sprung knees, 151, 152 
Stable pneumonia, 314, 315 
Sterility, 68, 70 



334 



INDEX 



Stifle out, 175, 177 
Stomach, diseases of the, 28, 38 
of the hog, 30 
of the horse, 28, 29 
of the ruminant, 29, 30 
worms of sheep, 257, 259 
Stomatitis, non-infectious or simple, 
26, 27 
ulcerative, 298, 299 
Strangles, 309, 310 
String-halt, 176, 177 
Structure of the limbs of horses, 
138, 142 
arm, 138 
cannon, 139 
digit, 140 
forearm, 139 
general discussion, 138 
hock, 141, 142 
knee, 139 
leg, 141 
pelvis, 140 
shoulder, 138 
thigh, 141 
" Summer rash," 121 
Sunstroke, 114 
Surgical operations, common, 219, 

230 
Symptoms, general, 8, 15 

beliavior of animal, 15 
body excretions, 15 
body temperature, 13, 14 
pulse, 9, 11 
respirations, 11, 13 
surface of body, 14, 15 
visible mucous membranes, 
14 
Synovial sacks, joint sheaths and 
bursse, distended, 157 

Tapeworms, 251, 252 
Tetanus, 304, 308 
Texas fever, 320, 322 
Thorn-headed worm, 252, 253 



Thorough pin, 181 

Tliroat, inflammation of the, 95 

Tick fever, 320, 322 

Treatment, medicinal, 17 
preventive, 16, 17 

Tuberculin test, 289, 291 

Tuberculosis, 283, 292 
avian, 327, 328 
control of, 292 
direct cause, 285 
history, 283, 284 
introduction of, into herd, 285 
post-mortem lesions, 287, 289 
predisposing cause, 285 
prevalence of the disease, 284 
symptoms, 285, 287 
tuberculin test, 289, 291 

Tympanitis, 33, 35 

Ulcerative stomatitis, 298, 299 
Unsoundnesses and blemishes, 143, 
146 
examination, 144, 146 
general discussion, 143 
recognition of disease, 143 
Urination, excessive, 59, 60 
Urine, necessity of examination of, 59 

retention of, 63, 64 
Urticaria, 120, 121 

Vaccination of hogs, 280, 282 

Ventilation, 93, 94 

Verminous bronchitis in calves, 262 

in hogs, 263, 264 

and pneumonia of sheep, 
262, 263 

Warty and sore teats, 87 

White scours in young animals, 47, 

50 
Worms of the digestive tract of 

poultry, 264, 265 
Wound, healing, 208, 209 

treatment, 209, 211 
Wounds, 205, 211 



